As part of the 2025 EC-OECD STIP survey, countries described their main policy debates around government support to Human resources for research and innovation (see Annex A for the raw data). These responses can be clustered around a number of salient issues, described below.
Figure 1 shows the number of policy initiatives reported within the themes belonging to the Human resources for research and innovation policy area. By large the most recurrent theme is International mobility of human resources, covering the reform of rules governing public sector employment and researcher recruitment rules, together with various mobility incentives targeted at researchers and companies. Doctoral and postdoctoral researchers, the second most frequently addressed theme, includes dedicated support to postgraduate programmes and rules and schemes for their evaluation, support to industry involvement in PhD training schemes and reform of academic curricula, among other forms of support. This theme is followed by Equity, diversity and inclusion (EDI), which includes efforts to ensure that all individuals can fully participate in research and innovation activities, regardless of gender, race, ethnicity, or other factors that may contribute to systemic barriers and inequalities. The fourth most recurring theme, Research careers, refers to the creation of new job opportunities in public research institutes (PRIs) and higher education institutes (HEIs), improved financial rewards and non-financial incentives, and other forms of support for researchers.
Policies targeting individual actors are more numerous compared to those targeting institutional actors. The target group with the largest number of policies is Post-docs and other early-career researches (Figure 2). The keywords (obtained when hovering the corresponding bar with the mouse), suggest that initiatives are often research-oriented, provide support for training and fellowships. Similar policies are directed to PhD students, with an additional emphasis towards identifying and promoting new talents. Initiatives also target Established researchers, placing added focus on supporting career development through funding for research projects. The figure also shows that large numbers of policies are directed at institutional actors, i.e. Higher education institutes and Public research institutes, to support their efforts in developing human resources for research and innovation. It is worth noting that gender balance is a recurrent topic across both institutional and individual actors. This is also reflected by the fact that several policies have Women as a target group, with keywords indicating support for training, emphasis on female researchers, and the promotion of talent and inclusion, e.g. in science and innovation councils. Governments not only centre efforts in the public sector, but also address Firms to support the development of human resources for research and innovation in the private sector.
Figure 3 indicates that the most frequently reported instrument is Strategies, agendas and plans, which government use to give strategic direction to the education system. Besides strategies, policies frequently use Fellowships and postgraduate loans and scholarships, many of which are addressed to Postdocs and PhD students and aim to identify and develop human talent (see keywords). Another common way to develop human capital is through Project grants for public research, which often support young researchers in launching their careers as well as international research. Regarding internationalisation, several Labour mobility regulation and incentives also facilitate cross-bordeer staff exchanges through, for example, postdoctoral programmes or research stays. Public awareness campaigns and other outreach activities are useful instruments to promote interest and gender balance in STEM fields. This instrument also includes vocational training and lifelong learning policies: Institutional funding for public research is often used to provide block funding that is bundled with resources for teaching.
Among policy initiatives that report yearly budget expenditure in this policy area, the most frequent range is Less than 1M EUR (Figure 4). This range contains a set of small-scale initiatives of various kinds, including fellowships and public outreach campaigns promoting STEM studies and research careers. Several of these schemes are oriented towards women, i.e. promoting gender balance across STI activities. A significant share of initiatives report yearly budget expenditures between 1M-5M and 5M-20M EUR. The keywords displayed in the chart indicate that these are generally oriented towards supporting doctoral students and early-career researchers. Smaller shares of initiatives for Human resources for research and innovation report higher budgets. As observed within Public research system policies, initiatives with the largest budgets include institutional funding schemes that bundle financial support for public research with support for teaching activities.
Figure 5 shows that Portugal has reported the largest number of initiatives in this policy area, followed by Canada, Türkiye and Germany. The chart shows only the number of policy initiatives reported by countries and gives no indication of their scale or scope. The figure should therefore be interpreted with care. Clicking on a given bar in the chart will bring you to the corresponding country dashboard for Human resources for research and innovation policies.
Table 1 contains the answers provided by countries (and other entities) to the following question: Policy debates for Human resources for research and innovation You may use the table's search box to filter the data by country or keyword. You may also dowload the data in Excel format.
Table 1. Policy debates in the Human resources for research and innovation policy area
| Country | Response |
|---|---|
| Argentina | The ongoing debate concerning the structure and criteria of career paths for researchers and technologists is critical. Recent policy proposals have sought to broaden the scope of technology transfer careers, enhance public-private internships, and revise evaluation criteria to better reflect the diverse contributions of individuals in these fields. These initiatives are essential as they aim to create more inclusive and dynamic career pathways in science, technology, and innovation. By updating the evaluation criteria, we can ensure that a wider array of contributions are recognised, thereby fostering a more diverse and innovative research environment. Additionally, promoting public-private internships can bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application, enhancing the skill sets of researchers and technologists. The expansion of technology transfer careers is also a significant step. It opens up opportunities for professionals to engage directly with the market and society, applying their expertise to real-world challenges and enhancing the impact of scientific research on societal advancement. |
| Armenia | Among the primary strategies of the Armenian Government for managing and supporting human resources in the field of public research and innovation are initiatives based on research findings. This research indicates that the system loses one scientist over the age of 65 approximately every four days, due to retirement or other causes. Concurrently, the influx of young researchers is insufficient to reverse this trend. The principal causes of this brain drain include a lack of competitive salaries, insufficient grant programmes tailored to each stage of a researcher's career, and limited retraining opportunities. In response to these challenges, the Armenian Government decided in 2021 to increase public funding for these fields. As a result, the allocation of state funds to the sector has seen an annual increase. This reform was unanimously supported by stakeholders and society. |
| Australia | Australia's National Science Statement has outlined five imperatives to shape the national science system over the next decade, including the development of a diverse, skilled workforce essential for translating science into new industries. Several key developments related to government support for human resources for research and innovation have emerged: The Australian Research Council is currently reviewing its National Competitive Grants Program. An open discussion paper released in April 2025 highlighted the need for a skilled research workforce to keep Australia competitive. This involves fostering the next generation of researchers, adapting to changing research careers, and creating stronger pathways for researchers to drive innovation outside of universities. Proposed changes to the program model include enhanced opportunities for early career researchers. Under the proposed model, early career researchers can be named as investigators and benefit from flexible postdoctoral salary options, with fellowships embedded in project schemes to foster skill development and leadership. Grants will also encourage senior researchers to mentor emerging scholars, helping them transition to research independence. Additionally, the Australian Research Council (ARC) is planning a principles-based overhaul of how career interruptions are assessed, potentially introducing a two-stage application process. This may include an anonymised first stage focused on the quality of the research problem and methodology, ensuring fair assessment for applicants with limited track records. In 2025, the independent Strategic Examination of Research and Development panel released a public discussion paper that provided several insights. It emphasised the importance of a skilled STEM workforce in boosting effective innovation and meeting the needs of a knowledge-intensive economy. The paper also noted a potential skills shortage in areas crucial for effective translation and commercialization of R&D, such as engineering, product development, and sales. The paper highlighted the need to better align education and training with industry needs, particularly in high-tech and advanced manufacturing sectors. Proposed interventions include fostering stronger partnerships between universities and industry to support work-integrated learning, expanding support for vocational and technical education in engineering and design, and improving career pathways into product development and commercialisation roles. The paper emphasises the importance of building sales and business development capabilities to ensure that Australian innovations can be successfully scaled and exported. The panel recommends leveraging existing R&D investments to build talent pipelines and support skills development in areas critical to emerging industries. Additionally, the paper also highlighted that in 2019-20, 45 per cent of Australia’s R&D workforce was in the business sector, but there was a noted lack of diversity and mobility barriers that impede the effective utilisation of the research workforce (this information was provided by national sources and is not yet available in OECD databases as of July 2025). The 2024 Pathway to Diversity in STEM Review, commissioned by the Australian Government and conducted by an independent panel, recognised that diversity fosters innovation. The review recommended government coordination and leadership to create safe and inclusive workplaces, promote lifelong learning, and change perceptions while valuing diverse knowledge. The review outlines several specific actions and policy tools to foster diversity in the STEM workforce. Key recommendations include: • Establishing a dedicated Diversity in STEM Advisory Council to guide government action and mobilise systemic change across sectors. • Reforming grant and procurement processes to embed diversity and inclusion criteria into funding decisions for STEM-related programs. • Expanding the Women in STEM program suite and introducing new initiatives tailored to other underrepresented groups, such as First Nations peoples, culturally and linguistically diverse communities, and people with disability • Improving coordination between university and vocational education sectors, and increasing access to work-based placements and micro-credentials to support diverse entry points into STEM careers The Australian Universities Accord conducted a 12-month independent review of Australia’s higher education system, identifying human resources as the institutions' greatest asset. The Accord's recommendations included establishing a National Research Workforce Development Strategy, enhancing training in research, and developing a pipeline of early career First Nations researchers. Since the release of the Australian Universities Accord Final Report in February 2024, the Australian Government has begun implementing significant reforms in response to 29 of the report’s 47 recommendations. Key actions include: • Introducing a Commonwealth Payment for students in teaching, nursing, midwifery, and social work to support mandatory placements. • Developing a Managed Growth Funding System for Commonwealth supported places to meet student demand and promote equity. • Embedding Needs-Based Funding as a core component of higher education teaching and learning support. • Establishing the Australian Tertiary Education Commission (ATEC) to oversee and steward the tertiary education system. • Improving harmonisation between vocational education and training and higher education, reducing red tape for dual-sector providers. • Creating a National Higher Education Code to prevent and respond to gender-based violence, and commissioning studies into racism and discrimination in universities. These reforms aim to build a more inclusive, responsive, and future-ready higher education system that supports national skills development and economic growth. Lastly, the 2021 National Research Infrastructure Roadmap, developed by an Expert Working Group, recommended a National Research Infrastructure (NRI) workforce strategy. This strategy aims to support career pathways and address technical skills shortages, ensuring a robust support system for Australia's research and development sectors. |
| Austria | In the Austrian "RTI Strategy 2030," one of the principal objectives is to enhance human resources for research and innovation, with a specific focus on knowledge, talents, and skills. This federal strategy outlines several quantitative targets aimed at achieving these goals. The RTI Pact 2024-26, which follows on from this strategy, identifies priority action areas. These include the implementation of a 10 Point Plan to increase trust in science and democracy, the enhancement of science and entrepreneurship education, and the support of female careers in science and technology. Additionally, the pact aims to stimulate youth interest and experiences in the STEM sector and strengthen internationally competitive doctoral programmes. It also provides targeted, individual start-up support for young people. Objective 3 of the RTI Pact further includes a skills initiative that addresses changes in the working environment. This initiative encompasses training programmes designed to ensure the availability of a sufficient number of skilled workers required for sustainable industrial development. |
| Belgium - Brussels Capital | Facing a structural shortage of skilled research and innovation (R&I) professionals, the Brussels-Capital Region (BCR), through its R&I agency Innoviris, is prioritising efforts to boost STEM careers and strengthen the local talent pipeline. There is an emerging focus on strategic "deep tech" domains such as advanced digital technologies and artificial intelligence, as well as innovation in health, social innovation, and the circular economy—fields identified as key for the region’s sustainable future and requiring specialised human capital. A central debate is how to retain and attract this talent locally, given the intense intra-European competition. Policymakers are working to enhance Brussels' attractiveness as an R&I hub by expanding innovation networks and creating local opportunities for researchers and entrepreneurs. These priorities are embedded in Innoviris’s strategic plans, which aim at reinforcing the entire value chain from research to market and scaling up local innovative companies in priority sectors. Simultaneously, inclusivity within the R&I workforce is becoming a prominent theme, with policies being designed to diversify the talent pool and reduce social inequalities in accessing research careers. Innoviris and other regional stakeholders emphasise structural changes to address underrepresentation in science and innovation, promoting equal opportunities in funding and participation. A collaborative "quadruple helix" model—combining universities, businesses, public institutions, and civil society—is increasingly advocated to support training, recruitment, and talent retention. Cross-fertilisation across disciplines, sectors, and stakeholders is also recognised as essential for fostering creativity and skill development. Another prominent debate revolves around revising funding mechanisms to better support early-career researchers and entrepreneurs. The region is exploring more agile and flexible financial tools, including grants, loans, and seed investments, aimed at empowering young innovators and enabling promising local projects to scale effectively. |
| Belgium - Federal government | Belgium is highly committed to developing attractive research infrastructures that are accessible to a broad spectrum of stakeholders. This includes the presence of foreign doctoral students and the establishment of effective networks that foster fruitful collaborations and open innovation. Additionally, there is a focus on nurturing a qualified workforce and supporting the numerous innovative small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) within the country. Improvements are also being made in several key areas. These include intellectual property rights, lifelong learning, and the development of environmental technologies. Each of these sectors is crucial for enhancing the overall effectiveness and sustainability of research and innovation in Belgium. |
| Belgium - Flanders | In its policy memorandum for 2024-2029, the VARIO has highlighted several key areas to enhance human capital in research and innovation. Firstly, there is a strong emphasis on developing a comprehensive action plan to attract international top talent. This includes more flexible language regulations in higher education and a further relaxation of the Dutch language requirement for foreign lecturers. VARIO also advocates for facilitating professional mobility across various sectors—academia, private industry, public institutions, and non-profits. This intersectoral mobility is crucial for talent development at both individual and regional levels and acts as an effective mechanism for knowledge diffusion. However, there are several barriers that need to be addressed to facilitate this mobility efficiently. These include employment status regulations, pension schemes, academic career evaluations, and concerns about conflicts of interest. Additionally, VARIO points out the urgent need to boost STEM education, noting that Flanders is currently lagging in the share of STEM degrees within higher education. The existing STEM Agenda 2030 is criticised for lacking ambition and clear targets, prompting calls for a redesign of the STEM policy. The Flemish Government is also taking significant steps to incorporate human capital development into its R&D&I system analysis and productivity agenda. It recognises that technological advancements, entrepreneurship, education, and digital skills are key drivers of productivity growth. Efforts to support young researchers, such as the Omkadering van Jonge Onderzoekers (OJO) initiative, are in place to ensure career attractiveness and broader skill development. This aligns with the EU Reform of Research Assessment (RRA) initiative, which shifts evaluation metrics beyond publications and citations to include altmetrics, science communication, open science, policy advisory, interdisciplinarity, and knowledge valorization. Furthermore, the Flemish Government is enhancing researcher mobility through IOF and interface activities, strengthening exchanges between public and private O&O&I actors. Improvements in STEM policy are being pursued, including boosting student enrollment in STEM fields, aligned with the STEM Agenda 2030, strengthening public knowledge of science and innovation, enhancing the visibility of research excellence in Flanders, encouraging citizen participation in scientific research, and improving coordination between Department WEWIS, VLAIO, and FWO in science communication. By 2025, the FWO aims to become the home for every excellent researcher in Flanders. It will assess the expected impact on success rates in its programmes and present scenarios to the Flemish Government to achieve this goal. A system-wide approach will be applied to elevate the entire research landscape, optimising the current research funding for Flemish universities and ensuring that the research career remains attractive for all researchers. |
| Belgium - Wallonia | No responses have been provided in 2025. |
| Belgium - Wallonia-Brussels Federation | The issue of research careers is a priority for the FWB. In 2024, a task force was established, bringing together all stakeholders in research to explore ways to simplify and harmonise the status of researchers. By 2025, this initiative had already resulted in significant legislative changes affecting research careers. Additionally, the FWB has allocated funding to support various projects associated with the COARA project at its universities. This funding aims to enhance the infrastructure and resources available to researchers, thereby fostering a more conducive environment for innovation and scientific inquiry. The Ministry has been actively involved in the ERA action, focusing on research careers, and participated in a Mutual Learning Exercise (MLE) conducted over 2024 and 2025. Furthermore, the FWB funds the Observatory of Research and Scientific Careers at the FNRS. This observatory monitors the career trajectories of PhD holders, regularly publishing studies that provide insights into their professional transitions both within academia and in other sectors. |
| Brazil | STEM Focus: There is a pressing need to enhance both the quantity and quality of STEM graduates in Brazil, as these disciplines are crucial to the country's main research and innovation opportunities. Initiatives are underway to improve science education in schools and to stimulate interest in scientific careers among secondary and undergraduate students. National Interests and Opportunities: This debate focuses on how Brazil's principal research and innovation interests and opportunities should guide the allocation of public resources and the establishment of evaluative incentives. These incentives are designed to foster human resources for research and innovation. The possibility of integrating mission-oriented innovation policy principles within the Brazilian STI policy framework is currently being examined. |
| Bulgaria | In Bulgaria, ongoing policy debates focus on government support for human resources in science, technology, and innovation (STI). These discussions address structural deficiencies in the research workforce, aim to improve career attractiveness, and seek to reduce brain drain. A primary concern among academic and research institutions, as well as policymakers, is the aging research workforce coupled with the insufficient inflow of young talent into research careers. Stakeholders highlight that current support mechanisms, such as salaries, funding for doctoral and postdoctoral positions, and career progression opportunities, are inadequate for retaining and attracting qualified professionals. In response, there is increasing dialogue on modernising employment conditions and boosting public investment in human capital development in research and innovation (R&I). Another central policy debate revolves around the need to align human resources policies with the evolving requirements of the innovation ecosystem and the labour market. Industry representatives and innovation actors are advocating for a stronger integration between academic training and business needs. They call for reforms in doctoral education, support for interdisciplinary and applied research skills, and more effective academia-business collaboration frameworks. Additionally, emerging visions in policy discourse are stressing the importance of internationalisation and mobility programmes, such as expanding participation in European research schemes. These programmes aim to enhance researcher skills and networks, reflecting a gradual shift towards a more systemic and demand-driven approach to STI human resources policy. However, challenges in implementation and stakeholder coordination persist. |
| Canada | In an increasingly competitive global economy, many countries have recognized the importance of cultivating a skilled workforce to drive innovation and growth. The 2024 federal budget in Canada has proposed significant new investments to enhance the value and number of scholarships and fellowships for master’s and doctoral students, as well as postdoctoral researchers funded by Canada’s federal granting agencies. The annual value of all current and new master’s and doctoral student scholarships is set to increase to CAD $27,000 and CAD $40,000, respectively, while current and new postdoctoral fellowships will increase to CAD $70,000. This enhancement reflects the Government of Canada's (GoC) steadfast dedication to supporting the next generation of innovators by providing funding and high-quality research training. It aims to cultivate research skills, foster creativity, and empower awardees to make significant contributions to the Canadian research ecosystem, economy, and prosperity. To support global talent mobility and recruit top international talent to Canada, a percentage of awards will be available to international applicants. Canadian award holders will also have the option to take their awards abroad. Budget 2024 also included proposed investments in modern, high-quality research facilities and infrastructure to help solve real-world problems, create economic opportunities, and attract and train the next generation of scientific talent. One of Canada’s flagship initiatives regarding human capital is Mitacs, a nonprofit national research organization that operates research and training programs in fields related to industrial and social innovation, in partnership with Canadian academia, private industry, and government. Mitacs plays a pivotal role in Canada’s economic and innovation landscape by bridging enterprise and research and facilitating the transition of highly skilled graduates into industry. A 2024 review by Statistics Canada showed that in the short- and medium-term, Mitacs-supported companies recorded positive increases in total revenues, sales, and labour productivity. In the long term, the analysis revealed that Mitacs-supported companies are hiring more employees (18 percent increase over seven years) and spending more on R&D (37 percent increase). Regarding support for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), which are significant employers in Canada, the GoC has provided support for human resource capacity development through collaboration incentives and workforce adaptations. Key areas for investment in recent years include employer-driven training through Labour Market Development Agreements and Workforce Development Agreements with provinces and territories. These provide supports such as skills training, work experience, career counseling, and job search assistance. Additionally, programs like the Skills for Success program deliver foundational and transferable skills training, develop assessment and training tools, and test training approaches to support Canadians in upskilling and meeting new skill requirements. The Global Skills Strategy streamlines processes for attracting top global talent, while the Foreign Credential Recognition Program supports the integration of skilled newcomers into the labour market by improving foreign credential recognition processes. Lastly, the tri-agency Equity, Diversity and Inclusion Action Plan (2018-2025) outlines measures to increase equitable and inclusive access to granting agencies’ funding opportunities. It equally details how the granting agencies can influence the achievement of an inclusive post-secondary research system and culture in Canada. Beyond efforts targeting equity-seeking groups, Canada recognizes that First Nations, Métis, and Inuit are rights-holding as First Peoples of Canada, and initiatives should be developed through distinctions-based approaches (working independently with First Nations Peoples, Inuit, Métis Peoples and Intersectional Peoples in recognition of their unique attributes), as described in the strategic plan “Setting new directions to support Indigenous research and research training.” In Budget 2024, the federal government committed CAD $30 million to support and increase Indigenous participation in research. Human resources for research and innovation intersect with broader policy debates related to attracting and retaining talent in certain sectors. Automation, digitalization, and the adoption of new and innovative technologies represent potential solutions to labour shortages and can make those sectors more attractive to work in. However, they also create barriers to entry for certain groups, as more specialized training and knowledge are required for entry-level positions. Canada continues to examine the policy implications of this dynamic. |
| Chile | In Chile, current policy debates on government support for human resources for research and innovation (R&D&I) are increasingly focusing on the need to transition from a model centred almost exclusively on academic training to a more comprehensive approach. This new model aims to promote effective insertion, intersectoral mobility, and the development of career paths within the science, technology, knowledge, and innovation (STKI) system. One of the primary concerns is the limited articulation between the growing volume of advanced human capital, which is mainly formed through national and international scholarships, and the actual employment opportunities available in the public, private, and productive sectors. This mismatch has drawn criticism from academic communities as well as researcher unions and associations, which are advocating for a review of the sustainability of the current system. A second focal point of the debate centers on the need to redefine the instruments that support labour market insertion, particularly in the private sector and intermediate institutions such as technology centres, NGOs, and regional governments. These areas face structural barriers including low demand for R&D, a lack of differentiated tax incentives, and a weak regional institutional framework for absorbing scientific-technological talent. In response, proposals are being put forward that suggest more flexible insertion programmes, new training schemes oriented towards innovation and entrepreneurship, and enhanced capacity building in R&D management and technology transfer. Furthermore, there is active discussion on the need to revise the criteria for evaluating academic and scientific performance. The proposed revisions include incorporating dimensions such as engagement with the environment, participation in social innovation, and intersectoral collaboration. These debates indicate a paradigm shift towards a more inclusive and flexible human resources policy in ICTC, which is oriented towards maximising the economic and social impact of knowledge. |
| China | The Chinese government has consistently prioritised the development of scientific and technological talent teams, viewing them as the primary resource for innovation in science and technology. To enhance these talent teams, the government has implemented a series of policy measures. These include optimising and adjusting the layout of disciplines and majors in colleges and universities to align with the evolving demands of new technologies and industries. Furthermore, the government has established the Youth Science Fund under the National Natural Science Fund, which provides robust support for the career development of young scientific researchers by assisting them at all stages of their scientific research. Additionally, policies have been formulated to support female scientific researchers, enabling them to better balance family and work commitments while engaging in scientific research activities. In terms of talent motivation, the Chinese government has adopted a dual approach: reducing burdens and reforming evaluation systems. It has initiated three rounds of actions aimed at alleviating the non-scientific research-related burdens borne by researchers, which include but not limit to cutting unnecessary application materials, reforming the budgeting and disbursement methods of indirect costs to allow direct payment to the host institutions, etc. . Moreover, the traditional paper-oriented evaluation system has been overhauled in favour of a new system that prioritises innovation ability, quality, practical effect, and contribution. This shift is intended to stimulate researchers' motivation for innovation and enhance their overall vitality. |
| Costa Rica | In Costa Rica, policy discussions on human resources for research and innovation are increasingly focused on strengthening the national talent pipeline, particularly in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. While the number of researchers per capita and PhD graduates in priority areas faced challenges (398 per million inhabitants), stakeholders across academia, government, and industry are actively promoting initiatives to expand advanced training programs, foster international mobility, and align educational pathways with emerging technological demands. Current efforts aim to improve incentives for talent retention, support reintegration of researchers trained abroad, and encourage interdisciplinary and applied research careers. These actions are being framed within broader strategies such as the National STI Policy and the National AI Strategy, reflecting a shared commitment to developing a robust and future-ready research and innovation workforce. Another key focus of current policy discussions is strengthening the integration of researchers into the private sector and expanding stable, long-term career pathways in public research institutions. Stakeholders are advancing proposals for public-private research fellowships, as well as reforms in recruitment and career progression mechanisms to foster interdisciplinary and applied research. In parallel, efforts are underway to align postgraduate scholarship programs with strategic national priorities—including artificial intelligence, bioeconomy, and clean technologies—ensuring that talent development responds to the evolving demands of the innovation ecosystem. There is also growing momentum to promote innovation-oriented skills among students and professionals through short-term training, mentorships, and stronger academia-industry collaboration, building a more agile and responsive STI workforce. Although some of these ideas are incorporated in recent strategies like the PNCTI and the National AI Strategy, significant policy shifts are still necessary. |
| Croatia | In recent years, Croatia has made significant strides in the field of research, development, and innovation (RDI), particularly highlighted by the reforms initiated during the National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP) period from 2021 to 2026. These reforms were critical in modernizing the career progression pathways for researchers, creating an incentive model for career advancement, and addressing the shortage of STEM graduates. Notably, the introduction of critical research sector reforms, the doubling of the RDI program portfolio value, and the expansion of program coverage have been pivotal. Furthermore, the reforms ensured full predictability and transparency in RDI financing and marked significant progress towards evidence-based programming. The analysis of smart skills in Croatia (2022) indicated that there is a need to enhance transversal skills, including digital, green, and entrepreneurial skills. To further develop the entrepreneurial skills of researchers, which are necessary for knowledge and technology transfer practices to become more widely used, several programs have been created. These include 'Strengthening the competencies of students and young researchers for smart specialization and industrial transition,' 'Entrepreneurship traineeship program for young researchers,' and 'Start-up and spin-off companies of young researchers.' Additionally, Croatia has focused on enhancing the mobility and international cooperation of researchers. The revised Plan for Fostering Mobility of Researchers, updated at the beginning of 2024, aims to develop support systems for researchers' mobility and career development. It underscores the importance of international and cross-sectoral mobility in strengthening the resilience and recovery of the economy. To support these goals, substantial investments are being made until 2029 to develop researchers' competencies and skills, funded by the NRRP, European Structural Funds, and national sources. These investments cover a wide range of initiatives, including the establishment of research groups, advancement of young researchers' careers, intensified networking and cooperation with foreign institutions, incoming and outgoing mobility, STEM scholarships and strengthening competencies for smart specialization and industrial transition. Moreover, Croatia has been recognized for its efforts in implementing the principles of the Charter & Code. To date, 38 Croatian research organizations have endorsed the Charter & Code, and 16 have received the HR Excellence in Research logo from the European Commission. This recognition highlights Croatia's commitment to advancing research and innovation while ensuring that these efforts are inclusive and provide equal opportunities for all researchers. |
| Cyprus | Cyprus recognizes the importance of equipping the next generation with essential skills and aligning education and training systems with industry needs. Policymakers are focused on adapting curricula at all educational levels to better prepare students for careers in research and innovation (R&I), particularly in STEM fields. This effort includes targeted programs designed to enhance digital literacy, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills. Another critical area of debate is the alignment of Cyprus’s research career framework with the European Framework for Research Careers. This alignment involves adopting best practices in researcher recruitment, career development, and mobility. Policymakers are examining the adoption of the Open, Transparent, and Merit-Based Recruitment (OTM-R) principles recommended by EURAXESS. These discussions emphasize spreading awareness and encouraging research institutions to integrate these principles into their hiring practices. Additionally, there are efforts to actively support researcher mobility, especially for those relocating to Cyprus from third countries, by streamlining visa processes, offering attractive working conditions, and providing support services. Furthermore, two significant studies are informing these policy discussions: "The Development of Human Resources for R&I in Cyprus" and "The Future Needs in R&I Skills and Proposal on Increasing PhDs in STEM." These studies aim to map the strengths and weaknesses of the current R&I landscape, identify skill gaps, and propose targeted solutions. |
| Czechia | Several measures have been implemented through relevant policies such as the National Research, Development, and Innovation Policy of the Czech Republic 2021. Incentives supported by the Czech state budget, including the Implementation of Human Resources Strategy for Researchers and the Implementation of a Gender Equality Plan, have contributed to these efforts. Additionally, EU cohesion policy funds through the Operational Programme Johannes Amos Comenius have also played a role. This programme includes measures to promote and achieve gender equality, create an appealing environment for attracting and retaining foreign workers, and facilitate effective collaboration with the application sector. The interventions also focus on creating a supportive environment for research and development activities, including for technical staff. Furthermore, the programme aims to enhance the internationalisation of the research environment by fostering long-term relationships with foreign research organisations, building research teams that include foreign workers, and supporting participation in international research and development programmes at the project level. In February 2025, the Act amending Act No. 111/1998 Coll., on Higher Education Institutions, was approved. The amendment, co-proposed by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education, aims to reform doctoral studies by increasing the minimum monthly stipend, reducing the administrative burden, and promoting computerisation through the introduction of the Education Information System. It also seeks to promote the internationalisation of higher education and comprehensively address the regulation of private higher education institutions. At the institutional level, there should be support for changing processes and developing employees' competences to create an attractive and sustainable environment for foreign researchers and other qualified staff. Emphasis should also be placed on promoting active international mobility, which not only aids researchers' career development and enables the formulation and implementation of research projects with fresh perspectives but also facilitates the establishment and growth of international connections for research organisations. It is crucial to focus not only on attracting and retaining quality researchers but also on creating optimal conditions for enhancing contemporary master's and doctoral degree programmes. |
| Denmark | Generally, Danish universities attract a substantial number of both Danish and international researchers, including PhDs and postdocs. However, there is an ongoing debate on how to further improve and optimise working conditions, career paths, and recruitment procedures for researchers both in Danish universities and in Danish society at large. The debate on human resources for research and innovation in Denmark has focused on addressing the growing number of precarious positions. This has been approached by increasing the responsibility of university career-planning offices to promote employment opportunities in the private sector. Additionally, there is a concerted effort to revise the evaluation of researchers' qualifications to place greater emphasis on their educational skills and knowledge dissemination, without compromising the focus on research excellence. Another significant topic of debate is how to increase the representation of female researchers. In response, policy initiatives such as the Inge Lehmann programme, under the Independent Research Fund Denmark, have been launched to promote better gender balance within Danish research communities. |
| Egypt | In Egypt, policies related to government support for human resources in the fields of research and innovation are witnessing positive developments and extensive discussions, reflecting the state's commitment to developing human capital as a fundamental pillar for achieving Egypt's Vision 2030. There is a growing focus on developing the capabilities of researchers and practitioners in science and technology, through promising initiatives such as the "Next Generation Scientists Program" and the "Postdoctoral Program" of the Academy of Scientific Research and Technology, which aim to support young researchers and motivate them to engage in research projects that meet the needs of society and industry. Extensive discussions are currently underway to expand practical training programs and link universities with the private sector, ensuring graduates are equipped with the applied skills required in a knowledge-based labor market. Moreover, a positive trend is emerging toward supporting the retention of local scientific talent and reducing brain drain. This is achieved by improving the scientific research environment, developing the infrastructure of laboratories and research centers, and increasing competitive research funding. Ongoing discussions among decision-makers and representatives from universities, research centers, and the private sector underscore the importance of adopting a flexible system that supports researchers' career paths and fosters regional and international partnerships that open broader horizons for training and knowledge transfer. Taken together, these steps are a clear indication of a positive shift toward building a more sustainable and competitive research human resources system capable of supporting innovation-driven economic and social development in Egypt. |
| Estonia | Ensuring the long-term sustainability of Estonia’s research and innovation workforce has become one of the central concerns in national STI policy. Discussions increasingly focus on how to address generational renewal in the academic sector, as the proportion of early-career researchers continues to shrink and the overall researcher population ages. Despite efforts to make research careers more attractive—most notably through the doctoral reform that established PhD students as salaried junior researchers—there remains a growing mismatch between the number of doctoral graduates and the long-term career opportunities available to them, particularly within the academic system. These concerns have amplified calls from both academic and political stakeholders to increase the number of publicly funded doctoral positions. While the doctoral reform offers improved employment conditions for PhD students, concerns persist regarding the long-term sustainability of the scientific workforce. Some universities have begun implementing tenure-track career models to enhance the predictability of research careers and to encourage more young people to pursue academic paths. However, there is no consensus among research institutions on whether career stability should become a formal performance indicator for institutional research funding, nor on broader measures needed to strengthen the appeal and security of research careers. While Estonia has an internationally comparable researcher base in the higher education sector, a key challenge lies in the low number of researchers employed in the private sector compared to other EU countries. Employers have often expressed limited demand for PhD-level specialists, sometimes perceiving them as overqualified or disconnected from practical business needs. Many companies report that their need for research staff is focused on first-cycle (bachelor's level) graduates rather than doctorate holders. This situation reflects both a need to rethink the purpose and profile of the doctoral degree, and a limited understanding within the private sector of the potential value that advanced research competencies can bring to innovation. The debate also extends to the structural conditions shaping research careers. Some universities have started implementing tenure-track models to improve career predictability and progression, yet there is no unified national strategy to support academic careers as a whole. Institutions vary significantly in their capacity to offer long-term research positions, and there is no consensus on whether career sustainability should be linked to performance-based funding models. This has led to concerns about fragmentation and inequality in researcher support, as well as the limited ability of smaller institutions to compete for talent. There is broad agreement among stakeholders that more coherent national strategies are needed to strengthen the talent pipeline, align doctoral education with national needs, and ensure better integration between higher education and research career planning. These discussions are set to continue, especially as Estonia navigates long-term demographic and labour market shifts that will require stronger human capital investments in science and innovation. |
| European Union | Excellent researchers are fundamental for a successful European Research Area (ERA). Attracting and retaining talents in Europe requires attractive and sustainable research careers, and improvements in relation to important challenges such as job precarity, employment and working conditions, social protection rights, skills and intersectoral mobility, gender equality and inclusiveness, and researcher assessment. The Commission, Member States, and stakeholders have collaborated to provide researchers with adequate framework conditions, notably in the context of the ERA Policy Agenda 2022-24. This collaboration led to the adoption of the Council Recommendation on 18 December 2023, which focuses on a European framework to attract and retain research, innovation, and entrepreneurial talents in Europe. This framework includes the new European Charter for Researchers, replacing the 2005 Charter and Code for Researchers. The adoption of the new framework for research careers in Europe was accompanied by the launch of new tools and the reinforcement of existing ones to support the implementation of the new standards. A Mutual Learning Exercise, supported by the Horizon Europe Policy Support Facility, facilitated the exchange of good practices by Member States to encourage reforms. The European Competence Framework for Researchers (ResearchComp) was launched to foster researchers’ transversal skills and intersectoral mobility. Additionally, a Horizon Europe Talent Ecosystems pilot call was introduced to support attractive careers for early-career researchers with better working conditions and easier employability. An ERA Talent Platform was created to act as a one-stop-shop for researchers and research organisations, while a Research and Innovation Careers Observatory (ReICO), developed in partnership with the OECD, will collect data from EU Member States and OECD countries to support evidence-based policies. The HR Excellence in Research award will continue to be key in incentivising public and private organisations employing researchers to implement the European Charter for Researchers. Other existing initiatives such as EURAXESS and RESAVER have been further enhanced, including to facilitate the mobility of international researchers towards the EU. Further wide-scale implementation of the new framework for research careers at the organisational level will be supported in the context of the new ERA Policy Agenda 2025-27. The Commission is also working on a proposal for a legislative ERA Act, expected in 2026, to address challenges for a fully functioning European Research Area, including aspects related to more attractive research careers. An ambitious package of measures to make Europe a magnet for researchers from around the world is currently under development. Another growing concern is the need to support a better work-life balance for researchers. The EU is leading by example with the ERC Scientific Council recognising the importance of promoting diversity and work-life balance in science while accordingly implementing generous extension regulations for parental leave. In particular, the eligibility period can be extended beyond 7 and 12 years, after the defence of the PhD, for the Starting and Consolidator Grants, respectively. However, more support needs to be provided in other research and innovation career tracks. Additionally, through the She Figures reports, the European Commission's DG RTD has been tracking gender equality in R&I since 2003, informing the ongoing policy debate on how to address persistent gender gaps in the European Research Area. Notably, the EU is facing a shortage of women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) fields, with women's representation dropping significantly along the educational and professional career ladder. For instance, in 2022 women comprise 50% of doctoral graduates, but their presence varies drastically by discipline, from 68% in Education to 25% in ICT. Moreover, the latest data shows a concerning decline in the proportion of women in doctoral programmes in six out of eight STEM fields since 2018. According to the latest She Figures 2024, just 9% of inventors are women. A new tool, the She Figures Index, assesses progress in six key dimensions, assigning a score between 0 and 100, for EU Member states. Overall index scores range from 60 to 88, highlighting the need for continued efforts. Flagship initiatives, such as the Union of Skills, will specifically tackle this issue to obtain a more balanced pool of talents. Moreover, the 2022 UniSAFE survey found that nearly two-thirds of academic staff and students have experienced gender-based violence. The Zero Tolerance Code of Conduct, developed with the ERA Forum Subgroup on Inclusive Gender Equality, addresses this issue by providing targeted guidance to Member States and stakeholders. Policy development will continue under the ERA Policy Agenda, 2025-2027, focusing on implementing the Code, allocating dedicated funding, and deepening collaboration to drive institutional change and create a safer research environment.Furthermore, the European Commission is dedicated to promoting gender equality in R&I, making it a priority within the European Research Area (ERA). Provisions have been strengthened under Horizon Europe, requiring every public body, higher education institution, and research organisation to have a Gender Equality Plan to promote gender-equal opportunities for researchers. |
| Finland | In Finland, human capital is increasingly recognised as a critical enabler of Research, Development, and Innovation (RDI) performance. The new Act on Government’s Research and Development Funding (2024–2030) aims to raise R&D investment to 4% of GDP. This ambitious target has sparked a policy debate on how to significantly scale up R&D-related human resources in both the private and public sectors. Doctoral and postdoctoral careers have long been at the forefront of national discussions. A central issue is determining the optimal volume, length, and format of PhD education, along with the integration of general professional skills into researcher education. Although these aspects fall within the realm of academic autonomy, a national policy initiative has been launched to fund 1000 PhDs from 2024 to 2027. This pilot aims to explore and demonstrate various options. Additionally, debates on human resources in RDI have recently extended to postdoctoral paths in public research institutes, with separate funding allocated for this purpose. Addressing skills shortages involves not only increasing the domestic labour supply through employment measures and enhanced work incentives but also boosting international recruitment efforts. This is supported by the national Talent Boost Programme and initiatives aimed at improving the retention of international students in Finland. Another key discussion revolves around responsible researcher evaluation. Finland is actively participating in the European CoARA initiative (The Coalition for Advancing Research Assessment). The Steering Group for Responsible Assessment of The Researcher in Finland has also issued new recommendations for the Responsible Evaluation of a Researcher, providing guidelines for conducting assessments responsibly at all career and project stages. The availability of skilled labour is also a pivotal element of Finland’s industrial policy strategy. Policy measures are focused on raising education levels, aligning training with labour market needs, and addressing shortages through both domestic and international recruitment efforts. |
| France | The French Research Programming Law (LPR), enacted in 2021, has significantly broadened the scope of recruitment channels within the academic and research sectors. This includes the introduction of junior professorships (CPJ), private-law doctoral contracts, and both public- and private-law post-doctoral contracts. Additionally, the law has established public-law scientific mission/project or operation contracts alongside their private-law counterparts, all aimed at achieving the same objectives. The mid-term review of the LPR has highlighted several critical challenges. These include enhancing the attractiveness of research positions, ensuring equity, diversity, and inclusiveness with a particular focus on women in STEM fields, and improving the career prospects for PhD holders. Furthermore, the acting president of Hcéres has recently been tasked the Minister for Higher Education and Research to forecast scientific employment. This directive was issued in a mission letter dated 11 April 2025. |
| Georgia | The Georgia Innovation and Technology Agency (GITA) has implemented a range of programmes designed to enhance the human resources and capacities within the country's innovation ecosystem and aim to foster a competitive and inclusive environment for innovation. Among these, the Technology Transfer Program is noteworthy for linking academic research to commercialization pathways, thereby bolstering the role of researchers in the innovation economy. Do IT in Georgia –a large-scale capacity-building program aims to strengthening the IT ecosystem across the country. It brings together skills providers/ training institutions and motivated individuals to enhance their capacities and acquire the in-demand skills necessary for building a competitive and sustainable digital economy. Meanwhile, the Horizon Europe National Office is focused on enhancing Georgia's engagement with EU researcher mobility programmes, such as the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions (MSCA) and expanding access to European Research Council (ERC) grants. A central aspect of these policy discussions is the preparation and support of national researchers to leverage European-level opportunities effectively. This includes promoting alignment with European Research Area (ERA) priorities, which encompass research careers, skills development, and gender equality. The Horizon Europe National Office is instrumental in providing outreach, guidance, and training to prospective applicants and research institutions. |
| Germany | The research workforce is key for the success of the German public research system, because well-qualified young and established scientists and academics are a prerequisite for securing research excellence, innovativeness and academic training in Germany for the long term. The Federal Government is constantly improving working conditions for researchers and lecturers by making career paths more reliable, e.g. with its plans to amend the Academic Fixed-Term Contract Act by mid-2026. In collaboration with the Länder, the Federal Government is committed to enhancing the employment conditions for early-career researchers through the Tenure-Track Programme for the Support of Young Scientists, which it is now planning to expand. Moreover, it plans to also strengthen the Programme for Women Professors, which promotes female scientists on their way to tenured professorships at German universities. In order to foster excellence in universities of applied sciences, which supplement the research-driven university sector by focusing more on the needs of industry and society, the Federal Government and the Länder support the recruitment and qualification of professorial staff at universities of applied sciences through the “FH Personal” programme. The Federal Government is also focusing on international students, recognising their potential as skilled professionals, researchers and innovators of tomorrow. Thus, the DAAD German Academic Exchange Service is boosting the recruitment of international students and graduates in Germany for the German labour market through support structures at German universities as part of the Campus Initiative for International Talents. The Alexander von Humboldt Foundation (AvH) combines individual funding of exceptionally well qualified scientists in all areas of science with their lifelong integration into a worldwide network of excellence using established funding instruments, such as Humboldt research fellowships and research awards. Moreover, the Federal Government wants to attract international researchers with the initiative called “1 000-Köpfe-plus-Programm” (see 1.1) and to continue to simplify and accelerate the issuing of visas for the research workforce by reducing administrative burdens and digitalising the processes. |
| Greece | Brain drain remains a significant threat to the Greek Research & Innovation (R&I) system and the Greek economy as a whole. A large proportion of well-educated, highly skilled young people have left the country en masse to seek better career opportunities abroad. In response, the Government has initiated several measures to reverse this trend, such as establishing the Hellenic Foundation for Research and Innovation (HFRI). The HFRI offers doctoral and post-doctoral fellowships and grants and was initially funded by a loan from the European Investment Bank. After showing promising results in attracting post-doctoral fellows back to Greece, it is now supported by the National Recovery and Resilience Plan. Current governmental interventions primarily target research careers in the private sector, especially for young researchers. While positions in academia are limited and the existing human capital in research is ageing, the rather traditional industrial fabric of the country needs to be infused with state-of-the-art technologies and knowledge-based startups to increase the competitiveness of the Greek economy. Employing highly skilled personnel is a key element in this endeavor. Despite high unemployment levels, many businesses in Greece, particularly in the technology sector, struggle to find employees with the necessary skills. Therefore, the 2021-27 Programming Period emphasises actions aimed at upskilling and reskilling human resources to meet the needs of digital and industrial transition, decarbonisation, and the circular economy. Furthermore, several schemes provide training, on-the-job guidance, and coaching to young researchers and PhD holders to help them seize opportunities in the business sector. The implementation of 'industrial PhDs' has been a subject of major debate in Greece. In this regard, the new legal framework on Higher Education Institutes supports research mobility at national level as well as with institutions from abroad. Recently, the Ministry for Education and Religious Affairs included a relevant action in the National Recovery and Resilience Plan. Other inter-sectoral mobility incentives are also in place, such as incentives for spin-off and start-up creation and scale-up, the introduction of clear and simple relevant legislation, and support for collaborative projects between industry and academia. Creating an environment conducive to business investments is a crucial factor in attracting highly skilled personnel. Recently, large multinationals and foreign high-tech companies, such as Pfizer, Deloitte, Amazon, Cisco, and Tesla, established R&D hubs in Greece and hired Greek scholars from both within the country and the diaspora. A vibrant start-up ecosystem is also rapidly growing, offering career opportunities to young researchers. Gender Equality Plans, ensuring inclusiveness and equal opportunities in research performance and administrative systems, have been adopted by Universities, Public Research Centres, and Administrative bodies (including the GEP of the General Secretariat for Research and Innovation, and the National Action Plan for Gender Equality). Finally, a point of debate is the differences in research careers and economic benefits between researchers employed in HEIs and those employed in PRCs. |
| Hungary | The Hungarian Government is committed to developing the established "career in research model" to make the academic career more attractive. By enhancing research infrastructures, improving research conditions, and increasing wages, the government aims to make it worthwhile for researchers to stay and conduct their research in Hungary. This initiative is part of a broader strategy to ensure the supply of new researchers, as outlined in the Research, Development and Innovation (RDI) Strategy (2021–2030). The strategy emphasizes the importance of increasing the number of researchers through measures such as doctoral issuance, development engineer training, and research and innovation specialist training. The strategic governmental aim is to increase the number of R&D staff per million people from the current 6,273 to 9,000 by 2030. Additionally, the National Lifelong Learning Strategy (2021-2030) outlines Hungary’s vision for promoting lifelong learning and ensure that all individuals have opportunities for continuing education. The strategy includes provisions for the professional development of workers in the science and technology sectors, emphasizing the importance of updating skills throughout an individual’s career. It provides funding and support for educational institutions and employers to offer training programs for workers, including those in high-skill sectors like research and innovation. |
| Iceland | A strong human resource base is fundamental to Iceland's future success in science, technology, and innovation. There is broad agreement on the necessity of attracting, retaining, and developing talent within the country. However, several policy debates are ongoing, particularly concerning the funding and staffing of public higher education and research institutions. One of the central issues is the inadequate funding of these institutions, which often rely on temporary staff rather than permanent academic staff. This reliance makes it challenging for young researchers to establish and advance their careers. In addition, the dependence on project-based funding for doctoral students and postdoctoral researchers presents difficulties in a climate where competitive funds are limited. These funding challenges hinder the stability and continuity necessary for sustained research and development efforts. There is also a concerted focus on strengthening STEM education at all levels, from primary school through to higher education. This initiative aims to better meet the future skills needs of the workforce. Moreover, there is a recognised need for improved data for skills forecasting, which is essential for informed policymaking and policy impact analyses. Enhanced data collection and analysis will enable more effective planning and implementation of policies that support the development of human resources in research and innovation. |
| India | The current landscape of funding and resource allocation for research and innovation demands significant attention, particularly in the context of enhancing human resources with adequate skills to meet the demands in specific sectors. It is imperative to increase public spending to bolster the human capital that drives innovation. In a coordinated mechanism, multiple funding agencies in the country offer diverse opportunities starting from school level itself to attract the young talent to study science and create a channel to pursue their career in S&T research and innovation. This includes providing more opportunities through improved funding mechanisms that can create a robust environment for researchers. Strengthening research institutions such as universities, research laboratories, and national institutes is crucial. These institutions require enhanced funding to improve the quality of faculty and the research environment. This will not only attract talented researchers but also retain them, thereby preventing brain drain. Additionally, there is a need of increasing the fellowship remunerations for research fellowships for research to make them more lucrative for the researchers and the overall number of fellowship opportunities are also being considered, ensuring an equitable distribution across various STEM subject areas. Moreover, the introduction of initiatives in the form of programmes and opportunities aimed at engaging doctoral and post-doctoral researchers is essential. These initiatives should focus on leveraging the talent of these researchers and providing them with adequate facilities and resources to foster an environment of growth and innovation. Furthermore, it is vital to explore how to increase the opportunities for post-doctoral research positions within existing institutions in the country, which will contribute to sustaining and enhancing the research ecosystem. |
| Indonesia | Indonesia faces a significant challenge in building its human resources for research and innovation, particularly in critical fields such as biotechnology, artificial intelligence, renewable energy, and healthcare. The country has only about 1,595 researchers per one million people, a figure starkly lower than that of countries like South Korea, which boasts approximately 8,000 researchers per million people. This disparity highlights a substantial human capital gap in science and innovation. The situation is further aggravated by a wave of senior researchers nearing retirement and the limited recruitment of new talent. Opportunities for capacity building are scarce, with programs such as research scholarships, postdoctoral fellowships, and sabbatical exchanges hindered by complex and bureaucratic procedures. These limitations contribute to uneven development of research competencies across the country. Research talent in Indonesia is predominantly concentrated in national institutions and major universities on the island of Java. This concentration leaves other regions under-served in terms of qualified researchers, research infrastructure, and institutional support. Regional universities and research centers often lack the necessary incentives and resources to develop robust research capabilities. Indonesia is a country with diverse geographical conditions, cultural backgrounds, challenges, budgets, research capacities, and local government capabilities. Strengthening the capacity of researchers and establishing location-specific research facilities outside Java Island is often considered unrealistic due to limited resources. Some stakeholders suggest that local and regional research institutions should prioritize more practical, simple, and applicable innovations. Alternatively, they could focus on facilitating the utilization of existing research outputs, rather than pursuing complex and ambitious research that demands advanced capabilities. Additionally, researchers in Indonesia face significant barriers when engaging with industry. The lack of incentives and legal protections, particularly concerning intellectual property rights, poses challenges for researchers involved in commercial product development. The absence of a system to support cross-sectoral mobility restricts the movement of researchers between academia, public research bodies, and industry. This limitation impedes knowledge transfer and curtails the potential for innovation. |
| Ireland | Ireland places a strong emphasis on talent within its Research and Innovation ecosystem. In response to the Talent Pillar of the Impact 2030 Strategy, a national review of supports for PhD researchers was conducted. Following recommendations from the first report of this review, the 2025 Budget included additional funding for Research Ireland to raise the PhD stipend level to €25,000, reflecting an increase of over 31% in two years. This funding boost is part of a series of increases that demonstrate the Government's ongoing commitment to enhancing support for doctoral research. Moreover, in 2024, the Higher Education Authority (HEA) launched the National Odyssey Programme at University College Cork. This initiative aims to prepare PhD students for successful careers outside academia by utilising the transversal skills gained during their studies. The programme seeks to broaden the employment horizons for PhD graduates, highlighting their potential contributions beyond traditional academic roles. The HEA also promotes researcher mobility and supports the European University Initiative, which fosters transnational university alliances and enhances mobility opportunities for postgraduate research students. Furthermore, in May 2025, the Government approved the establishment of a Global Talent Initiative, a programme to attract international research talent to Ireland. This will be aimed at attracting a mix of early career high potential researchers as well as established researchers. The investment required to attract such individuals will not only facilitate the projects they’re investigating, it will also attract further high-calibre talent and add to the knowledge and skills base within the Irish University landscape. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), under its Research Framework 2030, is focused on developing environmental research capacity in Ireland. It recognises the importance of not only sustaining the research base but also training researchers in specific areas to enable the practical application of research outcomes for the protection and improvement of both the natural and built environments. |
| Israel | A key concern in the Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) human resources debates is ensuring a robust science and technology workforce in Israel, which currently faces shortages of specialists in critical fields such as artificial intelligence (AI), semiconductors, and data science. To address these shortages, experts recommend increasing university enrolment in STEM subjects, potentially by allowing private universities and expanded colleges to participate. Additionally, the Ministry of Education plans to increase the number of high school graduates eligible for a diploma in STEM subjects. Furthermore, mid-career upskilling is targeted through initiatives like the National Data Science Programme and reskilling academies. There is also a significant focus on inclusivity, with efforts to encourage more women into tech fields, in 2024 only 26.5% of R&D professionals in the high tech sector were female. Debates continue over how best to incentivise underrepresented groups, including women, minorities, ultra-orthodox, and Arabs, to pursue STEM careers. Strategies being considered include scholarships, preparatory academies, and dedicated post-secondary tracks. Another pressing issue is researcher retention. The Council for Higher Education has highlighted that PhD production has stagnated and needs to increase to sustain Israel’s research base. Policymakers are exploring strategies to attract diaspora scientists back to Israel and to integrate international talent effectively. Within academia, there is debate about modifying work rules to help retain top researchers, such as allowing university faculty to consult or take part-time roles in industry. This could help counter the lure of the high private-sector demand. Additionally, there are proposals to ease public-sector employment terms to make them more competitive. Overall, the debate on human capital in Israel revolves around expanding and diversifying the research workforce, from doctoral programmes to vocational tech training, and aligning it with the nation's innovation goals. |
| Italy | Fostering research careers and supporting young researchers also remains a central objective. Policies are being refined to improve career pathways, enhance mobility, and create attractive conditions for talents, both domestic and international, as part of a broader strategy to consolidate Italy’s research ecosystem. In 2024, the policy debate in Italy on human resources in research and innovation continues to build on recent structural reforms and funding initiatives. There is a strong focus on attracting talent, supporting early-stage researchers, and fostering inclusivity and mobility. The reform of doctoral programmes, initiated in 2021 and expanded through the National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP), remains central. This reform promotes interdisciplinary and intersectoral training, with growing engagement from enterprises and non-academic actors. National Doctorates in strategic fields aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are being strengthened, with regular evaluations based on international benchmarks and career outcomes. New measures have been introduced to further incentivize the attraction of high-level researchers. These include the enhancement of direct recruitment channels for European Research Council (ERC) grantees and Italian researchers abroad. Additionally, financial support for early-career researchers has been consolidated, continuing the implementation of the NRRP measure inspired by ERC and Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions (MSCA) programmes, supported by both NRRP and national funds. The investments made over the last few years to improve the Italian research ecosystem, totaling more than 11 billion euros financed under the NRRP, represent a significant opportunity. These investments aim to launch or strengthen bilateral initiatives with partner countries and make our research ecosystem more attractive to Italian and foreign researchers currently abroad. In this regard, the Ministry of University and Research (MUR) has launched specific initiatives aimed at enhancing the attractiveness of the national research and higher education ecosystem. Among these initiatives are direct calls and procedures to facilitate the return or relocation of researchers from abroad. For example, in April 2025, a new call for proposals was published, funded with €50 million, targeting young Italian and foreign researchers currently based outside Italy but interested in returning or relocating. This call specifically targets recipients of ERC Starting Grants or ERC Consolidator Grants. Each project may receive up to €1 million in funding and may last up to 36 months. The Ministry will continue to support projects submitted by researchers who have won funding from the ERC and MSCA, as well as those awarded the Seal of Excellence. |
| Japan | Japan’s aim is to produce diverse and outstanding research results that explore the frontiers of knowledge by creating an environment that allows researchers to fully exploit their abilities and take on challenges to solve various problems. To achieve this, the government will first help excellent students advance to doctoral programmes that match their intended future activities. It will rebuild a career system that allows first-rate young researchers to pride themselves on being global leaders of knowledge in response to the needs of the times, find value in their chosen career paths, secure sufficient time to devote themselves to research, and meet the challenge of becoming independent researchers. In the future, the government will develop an environment in which all exceptional doctoral researchers can obtain regular positions and become leaders in fields such as academia, industry, and administration. According to the Analytical Report of Comprehensive Survey on the State of Science and Technology in Japan (NISTEP TEITEN Survey 2024), the index "Q103: Expanding tenured employment for young researchers with proven track records" was rated 3.8 (perceived as not sufficient). Therefore, we will continue to make efforts to develop an environment for excellent doctoral personnel. To enhance research quality, it is necessary to promote deep basic research and academic research, as well as actively exchange various forms of knowledge. The aim is to create a stimulating environment in which individual researchers can perform research beyond their specialised fields, engage in intellectual exchange with various entities, and produce outstanding and original research results. Hence, we will encourage many researchers to accumulate training and experience under different international research cultures and environments, thereby bolstering their careers as researchers and building a global research network. At the same time, we will form an attractive research base in Japan to attract highly motivated and talented researchers from around the world, also recruiting them online. Promoting international joint research through these networks will nurture an environment in which new ideas can be created one after another through emulation. Furthermore, to promote research diversity and gendered innovation, the government will encourage the active participation of female researchers, including in leadership positions. In so doing, it will increase the number of potential knowledge bearers in Japan, reversing the low percentage of women currently entering doctoral programmes in natural sciences. |
| Kazakhstan | Kazakhstan is actively engaging in comprehensive policy debates concerning the development of human resources for research and innovation. These discussions are driven by the nation's strategic objectives to transition towards a knowledge-based economy and to enhance its global competitiveness in science and technology. Generational Renewal and Retention of Researchers: A significant concern is the demographic imbalance within the research community. While the total number of researchers exceeded 27,000 in 2024, a substantial proportion are nearing retirement age, and the influx of young researchers, particularly PhD holders, remains insufficient. Stakeholders are advocating for structured career development pathways, including tenure-track positions, mentorship programmes, and performance-based incentives, to attract and retain early-career researchers. This information was provided by national sources and is not yet available in OECD databases as of July 2025. Alignment of Academic Training with Industry Needs: There is an ongoing debate about the mismatch between academic training and the skill sets required by industry. To address this, the government is promoting the modernisation of PhD programmes to include training in innovation management, commercialisation, and interdisciplinary research. Initiatives like the "500 Scientists" programme under the Bolashak scheme aim to provide international exposure and training in priority sectors such as artificial intelligence, biotechnology, and water security. Introduction of the "Industrial PhD" Programme: A pivotal development in this context is the introduction of the "industrial PhD" programme, as announced by President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev in April 2024. This initiative seeks to foster collaboration between universities and industry by integrating doctoral research with practical, industry-focused projects. The programme aims to produce specialists equipped to address the specific needs of Kazakhstan's priority economic sectors, including green energy, climate change, and water resource management. The implementation of this programme is expected to enhance the relevance of doctoral research and facilitate the direct application of scientific findings in industrial settings. Regional Disparities in Research Capacity: Another area of concern is the uneven distribution of research infrastructure and human capital across regions. While major cities like Almaty and Astana host the majority of research institutions, other regions lag behind. To mitigate this, the government is supporting the establishment of regional science-education hubs and research centres to decentralise research activities and promote regional development. Internationalisation and Researcher Mobility: Enhancing the international mobility of researchers is also a topic of active discussion. Structural barriers such as visa restrictions, language proficiency requirements, and limited funding impede participation in international research collaborations. The government is exploring policies to expand mobility programmes, establish joint doctoral degrees, and increase access to international fellowships to integrate Kazakhstani researchers into global scientific networks. Strategic Workforce Planning: Finally, there is a growing emphasis on aligning human resource development with national strategic priorities. This involves proactive workforce planning informed by foresight studies and labour market analyses to ensure that the training of researchers aligns with the country's socio-economic development goals. Kazakhstan's policy debates on human resources for research and innovation are multifaceted, addressing issues of workforce sustainability, skills alignment, regional equity, international integration, and strategic planning. The introduction of the "industrial PhD" programme represents a significant step towards bridging the gap between academia and industry, ensuring that research efforts contribute directly to the nation's economic and technological advancement. |
| Korea | Korea is grappling with significant challenges in securing sufficient human resources for research and innovation, primarily due to two major issues. Firstly, the country is experiencing a demographic shift with a shrinking population, highlighted by a record-low birth rate of 0.78 in 2022. This is compounded by Korea becoming a super-aged society on December 24, 2024, when the proportion of its population aged 65 or over surpassed 20%. Secondly, there is a noticeable decline in the number of students pursuing STEM fields, largely because of the high competition and attractiveness of medical schools. Medical professions in Korea offer stable, secure, and high-income careers, which are highly appealing given the ongoing concerns over youth unemployment and job insecurity. This trend has led to a neglect of other STEM and research pathways, adversely affecting long-term innovation and diversity in the workforce, particularly in national strategic technologies such as AI, quantum computing, biotechnology, and fundamental science. In response to this growing talent crisis within its innovation ecosystem, the Korean government has implemented several policies. These include a substantial investment of approximately 15 billion USD in 2024 in strategic sectors like AI, semiconductors, biohealth, quantum technology, and green technologies, with a focus on workforce training. Additionally, the government is promoting STEAM education programmes, strengthening interdisciplinary skills training, and expanding government scholarships for STEM graduate programmes. Increased support is being provided for doctoral researchers and postdocs. Efforts are also being made to enhance job stability, career growth, and salaries for young researchers, particularly in SMEs and academia. Furthermore, to attract international talent, Korea has relaxed visa and work restrictions for foreign researchers, engineers, and AI experts. Despite these efforts, the policies in place are still limited, and there is a pressing need for more comprehensive, cross-ministerial solutions to address these challenges effectively. |
| Latvia | Human resources development for research and innovation is a top policy priority in Latvia. Efforts are currently focused on enhancing the doctoral training framework. This involves more closely linking learning with research, substantially increasing remuneration for doctoral students, and establishing 'doctoral schools' in higher education institutions (HEIs). Significant legislative changes have already been adopted to facilitate this new framework. Additionally, Latvia is developing a new academic career framework that integrates teaching and research roles, incorporating international best practices at the national level. In the context of these developments, there is ongoing discussion about ensuring a suitable breadth and number of research projects available for early-career researchers. There are also considerations regarding the structural aspects of the academic career framework, particularly the feasibility of creating tenure-track positions. Currently, the system includes tenure positions and postdoctoral roles, but a clear tenure-track pathway does not yet exist. |
| Lithuania | Major efforts have been made to increase the attractiveness of research careers. In 2024, the salaries of researchers and academic staff in Lithuania are expected to reach the target set by the Agreement on Lithuanian Education Policy—150% of the national average wage. This year alone, the average salary increase is projected to be €780, with the total increase since the signing of the Agreement in 2022 expected to exceed €1,300. To maintain this commitment, the 2025 budget includes an increase of more than 8% in the wage fund for academic, research, and non-academic staff. In 2023, the Research Council of Lithuania introduced a competence-based framework for researcher careers, which was grounded in earlier amendments to the Law on Research and Higher Education. This framework defines four career stages and outlines both required and desirable competencies for each stage. It aligns with European principles of career development and mobility and grants institutions greater autonomy in recruitment decisions. In addition to various instruments aimed at increasing the attractiveness of research careers, a new funding instrument for young researchers is being introduced – My First Research Team. This is a young researchers’ leadership programme based on a research group funding scheme supporting the implementation of R&D activities. Eligible participants include both Lithuania-based and international early-career researchers (of Lithuanian or non-Lithuanian origin, up to seven years post-PhD). In 2024, Lithuania launched a new adult education platform called "Kursuok". Through the individual learning accounts information system available at www.kursuok.lt, adults can access state-funded training opportunities in priority areas defined by the government. Notably, 50% of the state funding allocated for programme development is dedicated to courses aimed at improving digital skills. To date, more than 15,000 individuals have already used the "Kursuok" platform and benefited from state funding for learning. |
| Malta | The National R&I Strategic Plan 2023-2027 outlines several key initiatives aimed at enhancing human resources for research and innovation. These include long-term support for doctoral students and a proactive approach to attracting global talent in both the public and private sectors. Additionally, the plan underscores the importance of identifying and addressing barriers that prevent girls and young women from pursuing studies and careers in STEM fields. It also focuses on ensuring that women and men receive equal pay and work conditions at all levels within the research and innovation sectors. In July 2021, the University of Malta was awarded the HR Excellence in Research Award (HRS4R), recognizing its commitment to adopting principles that enhance the research environment. This initiative began in 2018 with the establishment of the HR Excellence in Research Committee. Since 2020, researchers across all levels, from R1 to R4, have been included in the committee, reflecting a comprehensive approach to involving diverse research roles in the development process. Furthermore, Malta is actively participating in international efforts to improve research careers through its involvement as an observer in the Policy Support Facility Mutual Learning Exercise on Research Careers and the EU-OECD ReICO project. These collaborations are crucial for sharing best practices and enhancing Malta's research and innovation landscape. |
| Mexico | Mexico has recently undergone significant changes, and the scientific sector is no exception. The reform of Article 3 of the Constitution in 2019 led to the creation of the new Law on Humanities, Sciences, Technologies, and Innovation. This law recognises that every individual has the right to enjoy the benefits of scientific and technological innovation and mandates the State to provide sufficient resources and incentives. It also guarantees free access to public postgraduate programmes recognised within the National Postgraduate System. The political debate surrounding government support for human resources in research and innovation acknowledges the budgetary constraints that must be addressed to ensure this constitutional right for everyone, irrespective of their socioeconomic or cultural conditions. There are two major debates in this area. The first concerns the training of the scientific and humanities community, specifically whether funding private higher education institutions and research centres imposes a budgetary burden that distorts plural and equitable access to science at the expense of collective benefit. A similar discussion arises around the equitable distribution for postgraduate studies abroad versus prioritising support within the national system. The second debate focuses on strengthening the scientific community, including the prioritisation of support for researchers in the public sector versus those in the private or foreign sectors. This debate extends to how the community sustains itself, questioning whether support mechanisms should prioritise productivity or career development, while respecting diversity of thought and socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds. Additionally, there is a discussion on whether scientific activity should address public problems. Given the existing disparities across different regions of the country, the scientific community experiences inequalities that prompt a broader dialogue on these issues. |
| Netherlands | The primary focus of discussions in the realm of STI human resources revolves around enhancing the working conditions and career prospects for researchers. This includes ensuring social safety, promoting diversity and inclusion, establishing robust support structures, refining research assessment methods, and safeguarding academic freedom. These elements are crucial in fostering an environment that not only attracts but also retains top talent, particularly from international pools. Efforts to attract and retain talented scientists from abroad are also a significant aspect of these debates. Strategies to make the research environment more appealing include competitive salaries, clear career progression paths, and inclusive and supportive workplace cultures. These measures are essential for maintaining a dynamic and innovative research community that can meet the challenges of the future. |
| New Zealand | The main ongoing policy debates in New Zealand concerning government support for human resources in research and innovation revolve around several interconnected themes. A significant focus is on ensuring a robust pipeline of skilled researchers and innovators. This includes discussions on how to attract and retain talent, both domestically and internationally, particularly in critical areas like advanced technologies. Policies around funding mechanisms, such as training grants and career development awards offered by the Royal Society, the Health Research Council, and other bodies, are frequently reviewed to optimize their effectiveness in building research capacity. Furthermore, there is an emphasis on fostering a diverse and inclusive research workforce, with specific attention to increasing the participation of Māori and Pacific peoples through targeted funding and capability-building initiatives, though such initiatives have come under recent scrutiny. Another key area of debate centers on the alignment of research and innovation skills with the needs of the broader economy. This involves discussions on how to best equip graduates and researchers with the skills required for industry and commercialization, bridging the gap between academic research and practical application. The role of universities in training and employing research and development staff, supported by government funding mechanisms like the Performance-Based Research Fund, is also a subject of ongoing policy consideration. A crucial policy discussion concerns the development and retention of New Zealand's scientific workforce. The increasing precarity of research careers, with limited post-doctoral opportunities, has led to concerns that scientists are seeking opportunities overseas instead of contributing to domestic research and innovation. While the government aims to attract foreign talent, there is a strong argument for prioritizing the creation of sustainable career pathways, competitive salaries, and clear knowledge mobilization pathways for local researchers. Ensuring that the reformed PROs and universities offer adequate support for emerging researchers is seen as vital to build a robust and innovative research sector for the long term. Finally, intellectual property (IP) management related to publicly funded research is a subject of policy discussion, aiming to maximize the commercial and economic benefits derived from New Zealand's science and innovation sectors. This inherently involves the human capital responsible for generating and translating that IP. The government's intention to ensure the right settings and incentives are in place for IP to generate greater commercial returns will likely fuel debates on how to best support and incentivize researchers and innovators in this process. This includes considerations around training in IP management, incentivizing commercialization activities, and fostering collaborations between research institutions and industry. |
| Norway | In recent years, the attractiveness of academic careers has been a focal point, including debates on PhD and postdoctoral career paths. Policymakers have addressed issues such as precarity, fixed-term contracts, the attractiveness of careers in academia, alternative career paths for PhD students and postdoctoral researchers, and the provision of information about career options. Internationalisation, diversity, and gender equality have also been significant topics. In response, an expert group appointed by the Ministry of Education and Research submitted a report in 2018 proposing changes to the career structure in higher education. This report led to the Ministry launching a new strategy on researcher recruitment and career development in 2021. Following proposals by a public committee and public consultations, a bill proposing amendments to the existing Act Relating to Universities and University Colleges was submitted to Stortinget in March 2021. The new University and University College Act, along with regulations to the Act, came into force on August 1, 2024. The new law further limits the possibility of temporary employment and extends the period for postdoctoral fellows from 2-4 years to 3-4 years. The regulations also strengthen candidates' rights to a career plan and access to career guidance, and have generally been well received in the research sector. The Government’s requirement for Norwegian language training for fellows and postdocs, however, sparked significant debate in the sector. Similarly, the elimination of the requirement for a doctorate for the academic positions of senior lecturer and associate professor, who have teaching as their main task, has been controversial. In response to these debates, a proposal to remove the language training requirement was presented in an ongoing public consultation in spring 2025. Additionally, the new law minimises the competence requirements for scientific positions. Higher education institutions are currently discussing how to coordinate these requirements across institutions. This discussion is part of the efforts to implement the NOR-CAM principles, which establish a broader set of qualifications for evaluating researchers and research. Commissioned by the Ministry of Education and Research, the Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills has developed a framework for career guidance for early-career researchers. This framework, notified in the strategy for the recruitment and career development of young researchers, was published as a dynamic tool on the Directorate's website in 2024. Part of the human resources discussion also concerns the research system's ability to attract experienced researchers, including those from abroad. As reported in the 2023 update of STIP Compass, another debate evolves around high expectations from the government for enhanced cooperation between higher education institutions and the labour market. This includes a focus on work-based learning and the development of innovation and entrepreneurial skills within higher education. |
| Peru | Peru has made significant strides in enhancing the capacities, skills, and competencies of its human capital in the fields of science, technology, and innovation. The country is actively promoting doctoral programs through inter-institutional alliances and increasing funding for scholarships and internships. Currently, internships are in both academia and industry, with a higher proportion in academia because in Peru, unfortunately, we have not made progress in implementing incentives for the incorporation of researchers in technology companies. Additionally, incentives are being provided to improve the retention and attraction of talent, thereby increasing dedication to STI activities. Training for technological managers in science, technology, and innovation is also being emphasized as part of these policy initiatives. Furthermore, Peru is committed to promoting the continued participation of women, girls, and adolescents in scientific research, technological development, and innovation activities. This is being achieved through strategic alliances with educational institutions, research centers, and international organizations that support gender equity in the scientific and technological fields. These efforts are part of a broader strategy to build a robust framework for research and innovation, ensuring that Peru remains competitive and innovative in the global STI landscape. |
| Poland | Public support for the development of human resources in the field of research and innovation has long been a focal point of discussions while planning various actions to bolster research and science in Poland. Historically, the weakness of support instruments for human resources was due to the absence of adequate legal regulations, which was rectified by the Act of 20 July 2018 – Law on Higher Education and Science (Law 2.0). Despite recent improvements in the conditions for studying in Poland, including strengthened material support mechanisms and enhanced social and teaching infrastructure, a common concern raised by the scientific community is the insufficient funding level for research and science, especially when compared with developed OECD countries and the European Union. The possibility of developing human resources through cooperation with business entities has been recognised. Several measures aim to boost sectoral mobility between academia and industry. Notably, these include the Programme Supporting Industrial PhD Trainings, which provides businesses the opportunity to employ gifted early-career researchers to solve technological problems. Under this programme, a PhD student works both at a company and within a research unit, with part of the remuneration covered by the state budget. Additionally, the Act of 20 July 2018 (Law 2.0) establishes a systemic reform of the Polish higher education and science system, introducing regulations to diversify the career paths of academic teachers. Law 2.0 has further extended the range of awarded doctoral degrees, increasing the interdisciplinarity of career paths. Human resources-related activities are among the State Scientific Policy's priorities. The optimal use of the potential of Polish science and higher education is served by continual enhancement of education and research quality, raising the appeal of careers in the higher education and science system, and supporting academia's mobility. There is also a need to support the pursuit of faster scientific independence and the decisive elimination of overly hierarchical relations prevalent in the academic community. Periodic reviews of the current regulations are deemed necessary to verify whether they effectively support employees in gaining scientific independence. The significance of supporting education fields with a practical profile that enables the acquisition of competences valued by employers is stressed. Higher education should allow graduates the flexibility to embark on professional activity, including the opportunity for multiple retraining. Systems for the promotion of science should align with those in other highly developed countries to avoid impeding the mobility of researchers or limiting cooperation with foreign entities, for instance, in the education of doctoral students. The higher education and science system should also broaden its openness to those seeking to utilise their talents outside a traditional scientific career. It is imperative to diversify academic career paths, particularly for those focusing on teaching, clinical work, implementation activities, and a broad scope of cooperation with entities within the socio-economic landscape. In Poland, the ongoing policy debates around government support for human resources in research and innovation focus on several critical issues related to talent development, retention, and alignment with national innovation goals. These debates are key to strengthening the country's innovation capacity and ensuring that the workforce is prepared for the evolving needs of the research and innovation ecosystem. The main issues under debate include the ongoing "brain drain," with highly skilled Polish researchers, scientists, and innovators leaving for better opportunities abroad, particularly in Western Europe and the United States. This is seen as a major challenge to the development of Poland’s research and innovation capacity, as there is a growing demand for professionals with skills in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM). However, Poland's education system, while strong, is sometimes criticised for not sufficiently preparing students for the rapidly changing needs of the innovation economy. There is also an ongoing debate about gender inequality and the underrepresentation of women in research and innovation careers in Poland. The low percentage of women in STEM and leadership positions in research organisations is a significant concern. Early-career researchers, including PhD students and postdoctoral fellows, face challenges in securing stable employment, funding, and career development opportunities. The lack of secure career paths for these individuals is seen as a major barrier to the development of human resources for research and innovation. Poland’s research and innovation sector also faces challenges in attracting top international talent, especially in cutting-edge fields like AI, biotechnology, and renewable energy. While Poland is part of the EU, the international competition for highly skilled workers is fierce. There is a need for better mobility between the academic and private sectors to strengthen the innovation ecosystem. Many researchers struggle to transition from academia to industry due to cultural differences, lack of experience in commercialisation, or limited understanding of industry needs. Many researchers in Poland, especially those in academia, face precarious career conditions, including short-term contracts, low salaries, and limited career advancement opportunities. This contributes to low morale and reduced retention rates. Beyond academia, the policy debate also focuses on the need to develop a skilled workforce capable of entrepreneurship and innovation in the private sector. While start-ups are on the rise in Poland, there is still concern about the lack of entrepreneurial talent, particularly in high-tech sectors. University researchers often struggle to balance their responsibilities between conducting cutting-edge research and fulfilling their teaching obligations. This is particularly difficult for early-career academics, who may feel pressured to secure research funding while meeting teaching demands. There's growing awareness of the need for more inclusive policies for marginalised groups in research, such as people from disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds, people with disabilities, and individuals from rural areas. These groups are often underrepresented in research and innovation careers. |
| Portugal | The ongoing policy debate regarding government support for human resources for research and innovation primarily focuses on updating the Statute of the Scientific Research Career (ECIC), which has been in effect since 1999. The statute, originally designed in for a smaller and less diversified research landscape, has been increasingly out of step with the realities of today’s public research system, which includes not only public universities and polytechnics but also Associate Laboratories, R&D Units, Collaborative Laboratories, Academic Clinical Centers, and Technological Interface Centers. In early 2025, the new Scientific Research Career Statute was approved following discussions in Parliament that have seen contributions from a variety of stakeholders, including the Council of Rectors of Portuguese Universities, the Coordinating Council of Higher Polytechnic Institutes, Associate Laboratories, State Laboratories Councils, sector associations, and trade unions. The main features under discussion include promoting the stability of researchers' careers and their research lines, creating a more attractive, predictable, and sustainable career horizon for researchers in early career cycles, and aligning the scientific research career with the careers of university and polytechnic education teachers to facilitate mobility. Additionally, the role of a researcher is being extended to include science management and communication. Efforts to reduce the precarity of researchers at the postdoctoral level have led to the establishment of regular labor contracts as the standard for hiring PhD graduates in public institutions. This was further supported by the launch of the Scientific Employment Stimulus program in 2017, which includes individual and institutional calls to enable the integration of new PhD holders into institutions. The program was bolstered by "FCT-Tenure", a new funding instrument aimed at promoting the hiring of PhDs exclusively for permanent positions, and a co-funding model to integrate doctoral graduates into both research and teaching careers. The ERC-PT Careers initiative also aims to provide more stable employment opportunities for early and mid-career researchers. In terms of research careers, a series of workshops have been conducted within the national ecosystem to encourage the adoption of career support measures, as outlined in the Council Recommendation within the European Framework for Research Careers. These include the HR Excellence Award and are conducted in collaboration with various stakeholders, such as INESCTEC and Support Measures for Research Careers, targeting managers and HR strategists from research and higher education institutions. In addition, the "Science + Training" programme has 45 million euros to support the development of the innovation and entrepreneurship ecosystem of HE institutions by supporting basic research, promoting knowledge transfer, reducing the precariousness of researchers, and strengthening the link between business and society. This funding has been crucial for the implementation of instruments that support the recruitment of researchers in permanent positions for entities of the public research system, a policy that represents a significant shift from the previous model for funding scientific employment via short-term contracts. It aims to attract and retain scientific talent and simultaneously confers a high degree of strategic autonomy for the institutions. Furthermore, specific incentives to promote international, intersectoral, and intercarrier mobility were put in place. Altogether, these incentives will have a significant impact on the public research system. International mobility and the internationalisation of Portuguese researchers have been prioritised with the launch of the "FCT Mobility" programme in 2024, designed to stimulate the mobility of Portuguese doctoral researchers abroad and foreign doctoral researchers in Portugal. This is complemented by the new fiscal incentive system for scientific research and innovation (IFICI initiative), which offers new residents a special tax rate of 20% on eligible income for 10 years, aiming to attract talent. Intersectoral mobility has been facilitated through funding programmes that promote PhD training in non-academic environments and similar schemes within the Scientific Employment Stimulus Program, which is still under public consultation. Mobility to other sectors is also supported by intermediation mechanisms and institutions such as Collaborative Laboratories and Technology and Innovation Centres. Fiscal incentives for businesses with R&D expenditure, like SIFIDE, continue to support this mobility. Developing skills through advanced training and qualification of human resources has been a significant focus during this period. An example is the Doctor AP Program, a new FCT funding instrument focused on enhancing the scientific capacity of Portuguese Public Administration entities, ultimately contributing to more informed policymaking. |
| Republic of Moldova | The development and retention of human resources in the research and innovation system remains a persistent challenge and a central topic of policy debate. Stakeholders are increasingly concerned about the ageing research workforce, the emigration of young talent, and the lack of attractive career paths for early-stage researchers. These challenges are compounded by relatively low salaries, limited access to modern research infrastructure, and an underdeveloped innovation ecosystem. This makes it difficult to motivate students and graduates to pursue careers in science and technology. Recent debates have focused on how to reform support mechanisms for researchers and innovators. Proposals include competitive funding schemes for young researchers, dual career paths in academia and industry, and the creation of doctoral and postdoctoral mobility programmes linked to international cooperation. There is also growing interest in developing skills for interdisciplinary research, digital transformation, and green innovation. The government and academic community recognise the need for a long-term human capital strategy that integrates STI policy with education, labour market development, and diaspora engagement. However, implementation remains uneven, and policy coordination across institutions is still a work in progress. The emerging policy vision emphasises the need to transform Moldova’s research system into a more dynamic and attractive environment, where talent is supported at all stages of the research career. This includes improving working conditions, ensuring merit-based advancement, and fostering stronger linkages between academia and the private sector. These measures aim to make research careers more relevant and impactful. |
| Romania | The Romanian Research and Innovation (R&I) system is grappling with a significant challenge due to the lack of a critical mass of researchers. Despite a relatively balanced age distribution and a steady gender ratio of approximately 50% women over the last decade, the system struggles to attract and retain talent. The attractiveness of research careers is notably low, and the existing incentive system is insufficient to counteract the phenomenon of brain drain. The management of human resources within the Romanian R&I system is governed by a complex array of laws, government decisions, and orders. This regulatory environment results in varied working conditions, responsibilities, and remuneration for personnel, adding further challenges to the management of human resources. In response to these challenges, the National Strategy for Research, Innovation and Smart Specialisation 2022-2027 (SNCISI) and the National Recovery and Resilience Plan (PNRR) have outlined measures to support human resources. The National Research Plan, aligned with SNCISI, includes a specific programme aimed at increasing the number of researchers, enhancing their training, and designing a more appealing research career path. The objectives of this programme are to enhance the attractiveness of research careers, promote knowledge transfer, reduce brain drain, and elevate the visibility of science. The programme from PNCDI 4 dedicated to human resources is designed to achieve the above mentioned objectives through three more specific and detailed sub-programmes: “Start in research”, “Mobility” and “Support”, funding a variety of project types from research scholarships and research projects stimulating young researchers, mobility projects for experienced researchers from the diaspora, mobility projects for young researchers from the diaspora to awarding research results, including on Open Science related topics. Additionally, efforts are being made to build human capital in Open Science through a national project co-financed by the European Social Fund, titled "Adapting the educational offer to labour market demands through evidence-based policy making". This project focuses on co-creating a competency framework needed for Open Science with Early Career Researchers (ECRs) and future ECRs. It encompasses areas such as research data management and stewardship and involves practical sessions and collaboration with universities and research institutes across the country. |
| Serbia | Government support for strengthening human resources in research and innovation is a key policy focus in Serbia. Since 2018NITRA has launched a series of initiatives to encourage young researchers to remain in the country and pursue careers in academia and research. Through eight public calls, NITRA has successfully employed a total of 2,515 young researchers. Additionally, annual programmes are in place to further develop research capacities. These programmes offer scholarships for talented individuals, co-financing for scientific-educational centers and specialized organizations, staff training initiatives, and support for the procurement of scientific literature, publication of scientific works, and the organization of scientific events. Special mechanisms have also been established to support the reintegration of researchers returning from abroad into the Serbian research system. NITRA is implementing specific activities aimed at attracting returning scientists and researchers from abroad to participate in the work of national scientific institutions. Another ongoing policy debate in Serbia focuses on improving the career conditions and financial sustainability of researchers within public research institutions. This discussion highlights the need for continued efforts to enhance the overall environment for research and innovation, ensuring that it can attract and retain top talent. |
| Slovak Republic | No responses have been provided in 2025. |
| Slovenia | Within the Resolution on the Slovenian Scientific Research and Innovation Strategy 2030, the development of researchers' careers and the pursuit of excellent science are crucial objectives to enhance the attractiveness of the research system. The study on mobility flows of researchers, as part of the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions (MSCA), highlights that countries with a significant intake of new doctoral students are appealing destinations for MSCA fellows and are also proficient in retaining their own nationals for PhD studies. The study further reveals that balanced long-term researcher mobility flows are observed in only five participating EU and/or associated countries, including Slovenia. To foster a stimulating environment for researchers, particularly the younger demographic, Slovenia is focusing on several strategic initiatives. These include designing measures to attract Slovenian researchers from abroad and integrating foreign researchers into the local research system. There is also a focus on reviewing and revising researchers’ remuneration as per the new legislation to enhance competitiveness and attractiveness of the Slovenian research system. Concrete measures already taken involve optimising the use of Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions instruments under Horizon Europe, which includes synergy with national funding such as the Seal of Excellence, ESIF funding, and RRF funding. Additionally, new national instruments aimed at improving the reintegration of researchers are being implemented by the agency ARIS through strategic projects. These efforts support top scientific groups and organisations, including those researchers starting their independent careers, with a suite of measures supporting ERC applicants and grantees in Slovenia, such as fellowships and complementary projects. As part of the new ESIF 2021-2027, there are planned incentives for additional stimulation of researchers in the business sector to address challenges in the economy and assist companies in acquiring quality human resources to strengthen their research, development, and innovation teams. Moreover, a reformed public salary system was introduced in 2025, which provides better financial opportunities for researchers. Alongside this, the stable financing of Public Research Organisations (PROs) allows greater autonomy for research career development. However, some challenges remain in the field of institutional-based research assessment. |
| South Africa | Stakeholders' perspectives on strengthening skill development and innovation strategies are varied, especially in the context of implementing the 2022-2032 Decadal Plan. All government research entities, state-owned enterprises (SOEs), and national facilities are required to develop their strategies and incorporate them into their annual performance plans. Furthermore, they are expected to collaborate with Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) to enhance these efforts. This strategic planning and coordination are crucial in supporting the Government's mass public employment programme, which aims to generate skills for high-demand occupations. The Decadal Plan highlights manufacturing, agriculture, and mining as priority sectors requiring modernisation. The engagement with SETAs will particularly focus on these sectors to ensure targeted skill development. Additionally, the Department of Science and Innovation (DSI) will intensify its workplace preparation programmes in collaboration with the National Skills Fund. These programmes include support for internships, youth volunteers, and professional development, all aimed at equipping individuals with the necessary skills to thrive in these key industries. In South Africa, the government fully supports undergraduate students whose parents' combined income falls below a specific threshold. However, there remains a significant funding gap for those who are part of the "missing middle" — students whose parents earn too much to qualify for government aid but not enough to afford university fees comfortably. This gap extends to postgraduate funding, where the private sector's role is increasingly scrutinised. The government has responded by providing full cost of study support targeted at postgraduate students who are exceptional academic achievers, financially needy, or have disabilities. |
| Spain | In Europe, and particularly in Spain, there is a growing concern regarding the decline in the number of students pursuing scientific degrees. This issue is exacerbated by the trend of young individuals, who upon completing these degrees, opt for alternative career paths. Additionally, economic crises and the instability of public job offers have led to a significant loss of scientific talent in Spain. In response to these challenges, substantial improvements have been made in the Spanish Research, Development, and Innovation (RDI) system in recent years, aimed at enhancing scientific and technical careers. Legislative reforms have introduced new labour rights and increased stability for researchers, addressing the long-standing demands of Spain's scientific and innovation community. Initiatives for staff stabilisation and talent attraction have been implemented at public research centres and universities. These institutions rely on researchers to achieve their goals of quality, scientific excellence, international reach, and positioning. A notable initiative is the ‘ATRAE Programme’, which has successfully attracted internationally renowned researchers to public centres and universities. In its initial calls in 2023 and 2024, an investment of 55 million Euros facilitated the attraction of 58 researchers from a pool of 420 applicants. An additional 135 million Euros is slated for investment over the next three years. The State Plan for Scientific and Technological Research and Innovation (PEICTI 2024-2027) has introduced new elements into the Human Resources Programme. One significant addition is that action lines aimed at establishing a research career are now framed within the four-stage categorisation (R1-R4) defined at the European level. This classification aims to eliminate mobility barriers within the European Research Area (ERA) and harmonise research careers across Member States and between the public and private sectors. Moreover, a strategic objective has been set to strengthen the careers of technical and innovative personnel and to support the creation of new professional profiles in science and innovation. As research organisations, both public and private, increasingly require sophisticated scientific and technical infrastructures for experimental science, technical personnel skilled in the use of equipment, technology, and methodology are becoming indispensable. |
| Sweden | The human resources dimension is integral to many recent Swedish STI policy initiatives, such as the improved rules for tax relief for foreign experts and expanded opportunities for combined appointments in more areas. In both the AI Commission's "Färdplan för Sverige" and the newly published government STEM strategy, research and innovation are emphasised. The AI Commission, for instance, suggests establishing 200 AI postdoctoral positions, creating 50 guest professorships in AI, and establishing 500 combined positions along with research schools for 600 doctoral students. The establishment of research schools, which can include PhD students with combined positions, is also highlighted in the Research and Innovation Bill. This bill suggests national research schools in areas such as groundbreaking technology, space, polar research, bioeconomy, and primary care. Sweden has been successful in attracting foreign PhD students, who constitute a significant proportion of all PhDs in some research fields. However, many of these students leave Sweden after graduation. To address this, an investigator was tasked with proposing measures to improve the opportunities to attract and retain foreign doctoral students and researchers in Sweden. The investigation was published in December 2024. Additionally, in March 2024, the government tasked several agencies with strengthening their coordination to attract and retain international talent. |
| Switzerland | Supporting young scientists and ensuring equal opportunities while promoting diversity and inclusion with an intersectional approach are common priorities and goals in the Swiss Higher Education and Research Innovation (HERI) sector. A significant issue currently being debated is the implementation of measures to meet the future demand for skilled labour. Additionally, the lack of career prospects and planning security for mid-level faculty career paths is a topic of concern in political discourse. In response to these challenges, a national coordination programme has been initiated under the parliamentary initiative 22.3390 'For Equal Opportunities and the Promotion of Young Academics'. This programme specifically addresses the situation of postdoctoral students. Swiss universities are actively developing and implementing action plans aimed at sustainably improving employment and working conditions, as well as career planning for young academics. These plans include career support, coaching, mentoring, and the diversification of academic career paths. There is also a focus on designing more conscious transitions to the non-academic labour market, better structuring of the postdoc phase, and promoting intersectoral mobility. Furthermore, the approach includes broader performance assessment and the optimisation of data on academic career paths. A set of identified measures is currently the focus of a dialogue within the Swiss Conference of Higher Education Institutes, the highest political body in the field. This dialogue involves all relevant stakeholders, ensuring a comprehensive and inclusive approach to addressing these issues. |
| Thailand | According to data from public and private organizations in Thailand, the country had a total of 242,061 R&D personnel by headcount in 2022, which translates to 165,126 person-years in full-time equivalent, or 25 per 10,000 population. This workforce includes 190,523 researchers, 32,364 research assistants, and 19,174 supporting staff. From 2017 to 2022, the number of R&D personnel increased at an average annual rate of 2.23%, while the number of researchers grew at a higher rate of 4.87%. Notably, between 2021 and 2022, the total number of R&D personnel rose by 2.17%, and researchers increased by 6.85%, indicating robust growth in Thailand’s R&D workforce, particularly among researchers. Approved in December 2022, Thailand’s Higher Education Plan (2023–2027) focuses on three strategic areas: Capacity Building, Research Ecosystem Building, and Higher Education Transformation. The plan promotes lifelong learning and reduces social inequality by developing future-ready skills through various educational programs, enhances research capacity by fostering innovation ecosystems within universities, and focuses on improving institutional governance and digital infrastructure. Additionally, MHESI has launched initiatives such as the Thailand Massive Open Online Course (Thai MOOC) and the National Credit Bank System (NCBS) to promote lifelong learning and flexible education pathways. In 2024, the release of the new edition of the Thailand Talent Landscape provided workforce projections for 2025-2029 across 10 target industries, highlighting the three industries with the highest projected demand: aviation and logistics, smart electronics and industrial robotics, and the digital industry. To accelerate industrial workforce development, the government has implemented the Higher Education Sandbox and the GenNX Model, which focus on aligning graduate skills with market demands and providing intensive training in high-demand sectors. Several targeted initiatives have been launched to develop the workforce in specific industries, such as Electric Vehicles (EV), Semiconductor and Advanced Electronics, and the Creative Industry. These initiatives involve collaboration between universities, industry, and international partners to strengthen manpower and support industry-specific needs. Furthermore, the Development and Promotion of Science and Technology Talents Project (DPST) and the Science and Technology Scholarship Programme have been instrumental in cultivating science and technology talents since their inception in 1984 and 1990, respectively. These government-funded initiatives support individuals from high school to doctoral education, significantly contributing to Thailand’s academic and research capacity in science and technology. |
| Türkiye | Highly qualified Science, Technology, and Innovation (STI) human resources are pivotal in circulating knowledge and promoting scientific and technological development. This is a significant policy issue in many countries, including Türkiye. As outlined in the 12th Development Plan (2024-2028), Türkiye aims to transform its economic structure to ensure long-term stability and sustainability. This transformation includes boosting human capital through significant advancements in education, technology, and innovation capacities. The development of qualified human resources in both academia and industry is thus crucial for increasing Türkiye's competitiveness. Recent debates continue to include strengthening the capacity and quality of STI human resources while enhancing the attractiveness and sustainability of research careers. Particularly, the Research University Program will be strengthened in order to carry out RDI activities that support high value-added production. The capacities of universities included in this programme will be increased with special support. The training of doctoral-level qualified human resources needed in the industry will be ensured through university-industry collaboration, and employment of doctoral researchers will be encouraged. Another policy adopted is increasing qualified researcher human resource capacity and research activities in basic sciences in line with the needs in priority sectors and technology areas of Türkiye. On the other hand, Türkiye continues to prioritise talent attraction and tackling brain drain, while enhancing RDI quality which engages various stakeholders, including government bodies such as the Ministry of National Education and the Ministry of Industry and Technology, the Council of Higher Education (CoHE), and the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Türkiye (TÜBİTAK), along with private sector actors including businesses and non-governmental organisations. Key policy tools aimed at increasing the quality and quantity of researchers in industry, facilitating the international mobility of researchers, enhancing the research competency of Turkish researchers in critical technologies, and attracting outstanding researchers to Türkiye are being prioritised. Bilateral, regional and multilateral collaborations are developed, especially with EU countries, in terms of R&D activities, research infrastructures and researcher human resources. Global and regional joint research programmes in the field of STI are effectively utilised and a strong representation of Türkiye in international decision-making mechanisms is ensured. |
| Ukraine | One of the significant impacts of the conflict on the scientific community has been the loss of a considerable portion of scientific personnel, affecting the capacity to conduct scientific and innovative activities. In regions directly impacted by the conflict, either through temporary occupation or shelling, activities have been severely disrupted. Elsewhere in Ukraine, the disruption has been partial but still significant. This situation has led to the displacement of approximately 88,000 individuals, including researchers and staff from higher education institutions. Notably, over 5,500 of these individuals, representing 6.3% of the total, have been forced to relocate abroad, while nearly 4,900, or 5.5%, have been displaced within the country. In response to these challenges, urgent wartime priorities have been established to support Ukraine’s scientific personnel. These include increasing and diversifying state and grant funding through the National Research Fund of Ukraine, providing support for scientists who are abroad or internally displaced, expanding access to research infrastructure, and ensuring access to advanced electronic scientific information resources. Furthermore, initiatives such as the Ukrainian Science Diaspora project, launched in 2022 by the MES, the Council of Young Scientists at the Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine, and the Scientist Support Office Initiative, aim to foster cooperation between the Ukrainian scientific diaspora and scientists working in foreign higher education and research institutions. The state policy also focuses on creating incentives for individuals willing to return to Ukraine. This involves their integration into industry innovation clusters, innovation business incubators, innovation business accelerators, science parks, and innovation parks. Even those who remain abroad can contribute to developing the Ukrainian innovation ecosystem, promoting the exchange of ideas and the advancement of research and development within Ukraine. The strategic goal of preserving and attracting human capital includes preparing a list of specialists needed for the national innovation ecosystem, based on a study of the business and scientific environment, and intensifying contacts with Ukrainian-origin researchers, innovators, and startup founders abroad for their integration into Ukrainian innovation frameworks. In today’s context, cooperation with the scientific diaspora should be a key element of Ukraine’s foreign policy. This cooperation would not only foster the internationalization of science but also enhance broader international relations. Further cooperation includes promoting scientific diplomacy, creating joint research infrastructures, involving the diaspora in expertise and project evaluation, and engaging foreign professors in teaching and training Ukrainian master’s and PhD students. |
| United Kingdom | Building a highly skilled workforce is essential for maintaining the UK's leadership in science and technology. This requires a multifaceted approach, including attracting, developing, and retaining talented scientists, researchers, entrepreneurs, and innovators at all career stages. Additionally, it is crucial to develop talent pipelines in schools, universities, and research institutions. Creating systems for lifelong learning and reskilling is vital to keep pace with technological changes. Moreover, fostering digital and STEM skills across all sectors will enable individuals to participate in and benefit from a technology-driven economy. The establishment of Skills England is a pivotal part of the government's strategy to build and maintain the necessary science and technology skills. Skills England will form a coherent picture of existing skills gaps and devise strategies to address them. It will unify the skills landscape to ensure that the workforce is equipped with the skills needed to power economic growth. Furthermore, Skills England will shape technical education to respond to skills needs and advise on the highly trained workforce required to deliver a clear, long-term plan for the future economy. Our work to support early career researchers (ECRs) is another part of the UK’s efforts to build a thriving, inclusive research and innovation system that connects discovery to prosperity and public good, and supports people and teams involved in it across career stages. For example, the UKRI Future Leaders Fellowships (FLF) support talented people in universities, businesses, and other research and innovation environments. They also allow universities, research institutes, independent research organisations and businesses to develop their most talented ECRs and innovators or to attract new people to their organisations, including from overseas. FLF support people on diverse career paths, including those returning from a career break or following time in other roles. They support excellent researchers and innovators whatever their background. Fellows can receive funding for work in all research and innovation areas supported by UKRI, including interdisciplinary and cross-sector research. As countries compete for the highest skilled individuals in priority industries, the launch in June 2025 of the UK government’s Global Talent Taskforce signals a greater focus on targeting and attracting the brightest and best talent to supercharge growth, delivering on the government’s Plan for Change. The launch of the Taskforce and £54 million Global Talent Fund, which will attract world-class researchers and their teams to the UK, covering relocation and research costs over 5 years starting this year, sends a clear signal to exceptional talent and businesses that the UK seeks to continue its global leadership in growth-driving sectors. The fund, administered by UKRI and delivered by research organisations, will cover 100% of eligible costs, including both relocation and research expenses, with no requirement for match funding from research organisations. The initiative also includes full visa costs for researchers and their dependants, removing significant financial and administrative barriers to relocation. By focusing on these areas, the UK can ensure it remains at the forefront of scientific and technological innovation, equipped with a workforce capable of meeting the demands of a rapidly evolving global economy. |