2019 EC-OECD STIP Survey: An overview of data reported under the Human resources for research and innovation policy area

	Two recurrent topics discussed in national policy debates are the need to make research careers more appealing and attracting talent from abroad. Countries also often debate how well their tertiary education systems convey the skills most needed in labour markets, particularly as digital technologies increasingly determine firm competitiveness.
	International mobility of human resources and doctoral and postdoctoral research are the themes most frequently addressed by policy initiatives.
	More policies target individual actors in the public research system (e.g. postdocs and other early-career researchers), compared to institutional actors (i.e. public research organisations).
	The largest set of policies are small scale initiatives (less than 1M EUR yearly budget expenditure) of various kinds, including scholarships, grants and awards and public outreach campaigns that promote STEM studies and research careers.
	Policies with the largest budgets include institutional funding schemes addressed to higher education institutes that bundle financial support for public research with support for teaching activities.

About a third of participating countries stressed the need to increase the attractiveness of research careers, both in the public research system and in the private sector. Latvia, Ireland and Japan (to name a few) aim to create the necessary conditions for researchers to foresee a stable career path in the future. Some countries identify shortages in human resources to fill in vacancies in universities and public research institutes. Argentina and Portugal, for example, report difficulties in replacing ageing academic staff. More frequently, however countries indicate that the lack of long term job opportunities harms the appeal of research careers. Denmark, for instance, identifies an excess of postdoctoral positions against tenure-track programmes. France seeks to revive permanent scientific employment by stabilizing the number of statutory jobs. In the United Kingdom, an ongoing debate is how to balance the flexibility of short-term contracts with individuals’ desire for stability. Other countries highlight the need of revising criteria for evaluating researchers as a means to improve career appeal. The European Union is devoting efforts to make recruitments in its research labour market more transparent, open and merit-based. Spain recently established general criteria to standardise professional categories in the public research system and redefine the compensation regime according to merits. Estonia is revising academic staff evaluation systems to value a wider set of career elements of researchers (research, teaching, consultancy and contractual work outside the university and self-development).

Attracting foreign talent for the private sector is another recurrent issue of debate, also raised by about 1/3 participating countries. Some countries identify shortages of researchers and technology professionals as a major obstacle for the growth of high-tech companies. In Canada, for example, this issue is addressed by the Global Skills Strategy, which aims to help firms recruit the highly-trained foreign talent they need to scale-up and grow. Israel is also ramping up resources to attract foreign professionals, which is recognised as an important bottleneck for the growth of its high-tech sector.

Various countries aim to stop and reverse the so-called "brain drain", i.e. the emigration of highly trained or qualified people. Lithuania, for instance, indicates this to be a main obstacle for its goal of strengthening human resources for research and innovation. Greece has secured dedicated funds to support domestic research and thereby dissuade its nationals to seek opportunities abroad. The country also devotes efforts monitor its highly skilled diaspora, particularly to facilitate cross-border networking and exchange of know-how. New Zealand is aiming to strike a balance in resources devoted to, on one hand, avoiding local talent from going overseas (e.g. with postdoctoral support) and, on the other, attracting foreign talent with unique skills.

When it comes to strengthening human resources for research and innovation, as in previous editions of the EC-OECD STIP survey several countries emphasise science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) skills. Shortages in these skills are reported in Belgium (Brussels, Walloon and Flemish authorities), Iceland, Sweden and the United Kingdom. In Australia, there have been competing narratives in recent years concerning the oversupply of STEM graduates in some fields and shortages in others. Skills for information and communication technologies (ICT) are perceived to be critically scarce. In this regard, an emerging issue in the 2019 edition of the STIP survey concerns skills for digital technologies. Sweden and South Africa, for example, also see strengthening digital skills as an essential requirement to maintain the competitiveness of their national workforce. Germany is introducing a large number of new measures in the area of digitalisation and automation, including support for SMEs in their transformation to the digital economy. Portugal sees digital skills as an area requiring additional investment to unblock productivity gains in the business sector.

With regards to modalities to build human capital for research activities, the onus is often placed on postgraduate education. Latvia, Ireland, Japan and Hungary (among other countries) highlight the role of master's and doctoral degrees to meet the needs of the academic and industrial sectors. One of Portugal's priorities is to reinforce funding for PhD fellowships to levels similar to those observed in the European Union. Many countries recognise the growing importance of lifelong learning and vocational training. In Finland, lifelong learning is seen as one of the main pathways towards increasing and maintaining a highly skilled workforce. One of the four pillars in Thailand's national strategy for human resources is creating programs to re-skill and up-skill the workforce to address industries driven by science and innovation, in the forms of short courses and curricula opened to full-time employees. This type of education is particularly relevant to nurturing digital skills in the workforce. As digital technologies permeate economies at a fast pace, the needs for skills in businesses change accordingly, thereby requiring upskilling broad sections of the population. Most of Germany's initiatives supporting digital skills, for example, are provided through vocational training.

Several countries point to gender balance and social inclusion as key issues to effectively address shortages in skills. Australia and Belgium (Brussels and Wallon authorities) seek to strengthen the participation of women in STEM areas, whereas Denmark, Norway, Spain and Japan highlight the need to support female researchers in the public research system. The Slovak Republic, the United Kingdom and Canada seek to improve the diversity and inclusion of disadvantaged and under-represented groups in the research and innovation system. Sweden and Portugal share the common goal of widening access to higher education across less densely geographic areas, as a means to improve social inclusion.

Countries often question how well matched are the supply and demand of skills, while highlighting schemes that support the employment of tertiary education graduates and researchers in the private sector. Chile and Colombia, for example, emphasise their programmes helping the insertion of PhDs in companies and public entities. Hungary recently introduced “dual education” bachelor programmes that promote the collaboration between universities and industrial partners to provide students with formal opportunities to gain practice-based know-how, work experience and academic knowledge. Other countries, including Australia, Spain, Finland, Ireland and Estonia, stress the need to promote the science-industry mobility of established researchers.

3. Snapshot of policy initiative data

Policies targeting individual actors are more numerous compared to those targeting institutional actors. The target group with the largest number of policies is Post-docs and other early-career researches (Figure 2). The keywords (obtained when hovering the corresponding bar with the mouse), suggest that initiatives are often research-oriented, provide support for training and fellowships and promote brain circulation. Similar policies are directed to PhD students, with an additional emphasis towards identifying and promoting new talents. Initiatives also target Established researchers, placing added focus on supporting career development through funding for research projects and fellowships. The figure also shows that large numbers for policies are directed at institutional actors, i.e. Higher education institutes and Public research institutes, to support their efforts in developing human resources for research and innovation. It is worth noting that gender balance is a recurrent topic across both institutional and individual actors. This is also reflected by the fact that several policies have Women as a target group, with keywords indicating support for training, emphasis on female researchers, an the promotion of talent and inclusion, e.g. in science and innovation councils. Governments not only centre efforts in the public sector, but also address Firms to support the development of human resources for research and innovation in the private sector.

Figure 3 indicates that the most frequently reported instrument is National strategies, agendas and plans, which government use to give strategic direction to the education system. Besides strategies, policies frequently use Fellowships and postgraduate loans and scholarships, many of which are addressed to PhD students and aim to identify and develop human talent (see keywords). Another common way to develop human capital is through Project grants for public research, which often support young researchers in launching their careers as well as international research. Regarding internationalisation, several Labour mobility regulation and incentives also facilitate cross-bordeer staff exchanges through, for example, postdoctoral programmes or research stays. Public awareness campaigns and other outreach activities are useful instruments to promote interest and gender balance in STEM fields. This instrument also includes vocational training and lifelong learning policies. Institutional funding for public research is often used to provide block funding that is bundled with resources for teaching.

Figure 5 shows that Austria has reported the largest number of initiatives in this policy area, followed by Ireland, Australia and Turkey. The chart shows only the number of policy initiatives reported by countries and gives no indication of their scale or scope. The figure should therefore be interpreted with care. Clicking on a given bar in the chart will bring you to the corresponding country dashboard for Human resources for research and innovation policies.

4. Annex A: Raw data for national policy debates

Table 1. Policy debates in the Human resources for research and innovation policy area

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	Response
Argentina	In Argentina, the growth of research is uneven in the different areas of knowledge and geographical regions. Moreover, fundamental research has traditionally not been oriented around specific priorities, though there have been attempts in the past to change this tradition. Nowadays, the main debates around the STI human resources system and relevant policies refer to the balance between free vs problem-oriented research, to the improvement of mechanisms for technology transfer and to the evaluation of the performance of researchers. All of these show that it is necessary to encourage and reinforce a virtuous link between the production of knowledge and its applications. In the past fifteen years, some public scientific research institutions have had important staff increases. However, this has not been accomplished within the framework of medium- and long-term perspectives for the STI system and the development of some disciplines has been prioritised. Particularly, it is important to point out concern in the case of some public technological research institutions or some universities where there are shortages of researchers or ageing staff and replacement after retirement has not been properly foreseen.
Australia	Recent years have seen competing narratives concerning the oversupply of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) graduates on the one hand, and skill shortages in some STEM areas (particularly engineering and information technology) on the other. This debate is partly driven by the mismatch between the skills taught in tertiary education and the skills required by industry. While university enrolment in STEM fields has grown steadily over the past decade (with the natural and physical sciences registering the strongest growth), it has remained stable as a share of total enrolments. Some see the large numbers of science graduates working outside of research as evidence of oversupply. Others see it as evidence of the broad applicability of scientific training, particularly in innovative industries and firms. There has been growing recognition of the needs to: (i) integrate STEM skills with non-STEM skills (e.g. in business and entrepreneurship, and more broadly, the humanities and social sciences); and, (ii) to develop more flexible pathways between academia and industry to support innovative activities. Noting the need to transition to an increasingly knowledge-based economy, the Australian Government recognises the importance of a highly skilled, STEM literate workforce. To help facilitate this, the Australian Government has a suite of initiatives to increase opportunities for students to engage with STEM. For example, the government supports students to participate in the International Science and Mathematics Olympiads. In addition, the Australian Government is also taking steps to ensure the full potential of the workforce is realised. The government is seeking to address STEM gender equity issues by investing in initiatives to increase participation of women and girls in STEM including the Advancing Women in STEM Strategy and the expansion of the Science in Australia Gender Equity (SAGE) program.
Austria	To develop a new RTI strategy until 2030, five thematic working groups have been established; one of them is explicitly dealing with the topic "human resources" (HR). Therefore, HR will be a pivotal part of the new RTI strategy. Further developing the human resource base is key to the overall success of the innovation system in the future. Despite rising employment levels in industry, the supply of graduates (particularly S&T) does not keep pace everywhere. Even more pressing is the situation with female graduates whose share in the S&T workforce in the private sector continues to stagnate at a rather low level, notwithstanding increases in absolute terms. An impact goal including budget and clear targets focuses on this issue.
Belgium (Brussels authority)	Support for human resources in research and innovation in the Brussels Capital Region (BCR) depends on multiple areas of competence, some (e.g. employment, research and innovation) attributable to the BCR, others to the two regional language communities (e.g. education) – the Brussels-Wallonia Federation as well as the Flemish Community. Some of the debates therefore go beyond regional competences, and will therefore not be discussed further here. The BCR has a great strategic advantage. With 86 000 students in higher education (2016), Brussels is the most important university city in Belgium. It has a great concentration of highly qualified human capital, which also positions Brussels at the top in comparison with other economically advanced regions in Europe. Moreover, the BCR has the highest proportion of the workforce active in R&D in Belgium. A major point of debate is the general shortage in STEM talents, and a large under-representation of women in STEM disciplines. Particularly the lack of a labour force skilled in computer sciences, programming and other advanced ICT is acute, bearing in mind the fact that the BCR is an IT hub, with a vibrant RDI ecosystem in this domain. A particularly regional challenge subject to debate concerns the substantial presence of weaker socioeconomic groups. The Brussels Region therefore provides funding to sensitising projects on science, targeting specific target groups such as young students, women, weaker and under-represented socioeconomic groups. The goal in the long run is to encourage more people to pursue a scientific career or be active in RDI. A strong focus is on the development of digital skills. At the moment, the Brussels Region intends to establish a “science do and experience center” that would reinforce the sensitising policy, with a physical location entirely dedicated to science awareness and skills development. This ambitious project is embedded in an inclusive approach to sensitise a large public to science. Possessing of a sufficiently large knowledge base in universities and university colleges, and numerous non-profit organisations and NGO’s with social sciences and humanities (SSH) expertise, the BCR intends to increasingly incorporate SSH in its innovation support programmes, and believes SSH to be an integral part of research and innovation activities. Another debate focuses on the role of the traditional technology transfer offices (TTOs). Brussels universities’ TTOs are increasingly stimulated to go beyond their traditional role and competences of “the science-economy-society” link and to fulfill a role as facilitator for SSH collaborations with “hard” scientific projects and to stimulate valorization of SSH research results that lead to societal (beyond the mere technological) change. The role of schools of arts is subject to debate as well; more particularly, their role in the creative process of multilateral research projects.
Belgium (Federal Government authority)	As the responsibilities for research and innovation have been transferred to the regions and communities during the 1990s, the competences left at the federal level regarding human resources management (in the field of STI) are limited. The remaining fields are the following: - Management of the researchers in the 17 federal research institutes. The researchers have more or less the same legal status (which was reproduced from the university system in the past). As part of a debate to grant the research institutes greater autonomy, there could be consequences for the legal status of their researchers, though this remains unclear. - The main tax incentive for research is based on lowering the cost of researchers. The system is not new and no major changes have taken place. There is, however, a recent debate on access to the system. Some demand making it more generous (and consequently more costly), while others would prefer it to become less generous (and less costly). This is something for the new government to decide upon.
Belgium (Flanders authority)	In its policy memorandum 2019-2024, the VARIO (Flemish Advisory Council for Innovation and Entrepreneurship) pays attention to the development of talent as the region’s most important resource. The Council asks, amongst others, for: - Increased efforts to address the shortage of STEM graduates and to inspire young people to consider STEM training and professions; - Encouraging the implementation of innovative forms of education, including embracing the most recent digital techniques. - Encouraging intersectoral mobility between knowledge institutions, enterprises, the service sector, the non-profit sector and government. Science communication is a separate chapter in the policy note for 2019-2024. Science communication is not only seen as a way to foster trust in science and scientists, it is also instrumental in firing up the passion for science and innovation amongst citizens. A new STEM action plan 2020-2030 has been announced, on which stakeholders will be consulted. It should be a broad action plan that also has sufficient attention for vocational professions and technical and special education. It will link STEM more explicitly to overcoming grand societal challenges. Furthermore, the government explicitly aims for a “STEM Academy” in every commune, through which youngsters aged 8 to 14 years can interact with STEM. The active engagement of citizens in making science will be stimulated by (1) fostering contacts between scientists and citizens in all relevant fora (science festivals, science cafés, science days, etc.); (2) bringing more researchers and scientists into the media through science journalism; and (3) announcing regular calls for citizen science projects. The Flanders government also plans to develop the “School of the Future”, to create a hypermodern digital school with an innovative labour organization, where students are driven to attain digital and other future-oriented skills. A pilot project is due to start in 2020. Apart from science communication, another important measure relating to human resources is to better prepare doctoral students for a career outside the academic world. Industrial traineeships and innovation “stages” for researchers are possible instruments. Mobility in general is a priority, not only between the academic and private sector, but also internationally and interdisciplinary. Universities will be encouraged to develop a structural policy on mobility and to increase mobility.
Belgium (Wallonia authority)	The PPS (Walloon Science Policy Council) highly recommends the implementation of an integrated STEM strategy to fight against the decline of S&T graduates. Four orientations are proposed: - Provide better information on scientific and technical professions: implement specific actions for the age group 16-18, better coordinate and programme actions, articulate initiatives with educational programmes, and develop actions based on a practical approach (object design, internships in companies, etc.); - Rethink science education: further integrate technology into science courses, reduce constraints on infrastructure and hardware, strengthen teachers’ expertise, and raise awareness about the specificities of science education. Partnerships should be developed with universities, ‘Hautes Ecoles’, businesses and research centers to support schools and teachers; - Develop actions aimed specifically at girls: strengthen the role of women scientists as an example, encourage more girls to enter these careers (role of teachers and parents), provide better information on the diversity of careers offered to STEM graduates; and - Restore formal contacts between secondary and higher education.
Brazil	The main ongoing policy debates around Brazil’s government support for human resources for research and innovation are: (i) STEM focus; (ii) national vocations and opportunities; and, (iii) undergraduate, graduate and post-graduate evaluation incentives. STEM focus This debate focuses on the need to increase the quantity and quality of STEM graduates in Brazil, as the corresponding disciplines are at the core of the main research and innovation opportunities. National vocations and opportunities This debate centres on how Brazil’s main research and innovation vocations and opportunities should drive: (i) the allocation of public resources; and, (ii) the creation of evaluation incentives aimed at developing human resources for research and innovation. Embedding mission-oriented innovation policy principles into the Brazilian STI policy framework is currently being explored. Undergraduate, graduate and post-graduate evaluation incentives This debate concerns evaluation incentives in higher education currently present in Brazil’s public research system, i.e. evaluation criteria for undergraduate, graduate and post-graduate education and research production. In particular, whether these stimulate the Brazilian education and research community the right behaviours and decisions which may enhance their contributions to Brazil’s economic and social development. Appropriate criteria should drive teachers, students and researchers to: (i) focus on areas and subjects more related to the main national challenges; (ii) increase their involvement with private sector R&D; and, (iii) stimulate their entrepreneurship ambitions.
Bulgaria	Efforts are being made in two directions: - Increase in PhD student grants; - Implementation of a national programme for young scientists and post-doctoral researchers. Additionally, a Decision of the Council of Ministers has seen the adoption of the following: - Peter Beron National Scientific Programme and Innovation With Europe (Peter Beron and IWE) - National Scientific Research and People for European Science Development (Vihren) - In 2019 two calls for proposals under the Peter Beron and VIHREN programmes were opened with the aim of attracting researchers from abroad, including from the research diaspora to work in Bulgarian universities and public research organisations. A proposal for a National Program for European Science Networks is currently under development, which provides funding for Bulgarian projects participating in the Twinning scheme, submitted and evaluated highly in Horizon 2020, with the principle of financing the most recent projects that have built successful partnerships and have agreements with European universities and scientific organizations. The Bulgarian education system has been traditionally supportive of STEM, providing students with numerous opportunities to broaden their experience in the STEM fields outside the curriculum. Currently several non-government and academic organisations are responsible for the bulk of the STE(A)M initiatives in Bulgaria and most of them work closely with policymakers, trying to ensure the sustainability of their initiatives, some of which have been standing for decades and have turned into an institution of their own. In addition to the amendments to the Law on Higher Education, which were approved by the Council of Ministers and tabled for discussion in the National Assembly, there are already concrete changes in the legal framework aimed at increasing the attractiveness of the professional fields cited. Specific examples in this regard are: 1. Raising the standard of support for the training of students in the professional fields of sciences, technology, engineering and mathematics. 2. Targeted scholarships provided for students in specialties in these professional fields. 3. An increase in the number of state-subsidised places for training students in STEM areas.
Canada	In an increasingly competitive global economy, cultivating a workforce with the skills industry needs is critical to Canada’s success. The federal government, through a number of departments and agencies, is committed to working with stakeholders, including industry, educators and workers, to identify solutions for addressing gaps in Canada’s talent ecosystem. Developing Canada’s talent pipeline is critical to achieving the country’s full potential as a leader in innovation and competitiveness. Recognizing the role of government in incentivizing private sector investment in workforce development, enhanced industry investment and commitment to training is required. - Work-integrated learning - Stakeholders have advocated for work-integrated learning as an effective way to develop work-ready graduates, and strengthen linkages between industry and academia. Programs like Mitacs, CREATE, DS4Y and the Student Work Placement Program, provide young people with hands-on work-integrated learning opportunities. These opportunities better prepare students for the demands of the workforce, help them transition to the labour market, and better align learning with industry needs. - Upskilling / Retraining - The upskilling of mid-career workers has been recognized as a measure to address the need for labour in high-demand sectors for growth and innovation, especially among SMEs that don't have the in-house capacity or infrastructure to find, assess and upskill workers with good potential to rapidly fill a sudden employment need. There is a growing need for agile, short-term, skill intensive training programs and work placements that can address the challenge of continuing education for mature professionals. - Foreign talent - Firms in high-growth sectors have identified a shortage of labour with the right skill sets to scale-up and grow their business. Access to global talent is seen as an integral part of the Global Skills Strategy, which helps Canadian firms recruit highly-trained foreign talent with in-demand skills. In addition, Canada is a top destination for students seeking both a high-quality international education and employment in their field of study once they graduate. With Canadian education credentials and skilled work experience in Canada, former international students are well positioned for success in applying for permanent residence through the Express Entry program. - Emerging technologies - Emerging and innovative technologies such as AI are crucial to growing a competitive, knowledge-based future economy. These technologies are also transforming the demand for skills and talent in Canada. The issue of addressing labour shortages and skills mismatches is complex. While the Government of Canada has a number of programs in place, provincial and territorial partners and other organizations (e.g. employer associations, community-based organizations) also play a critical role. Despite a number of programs and initiatives, challenges remain in addressing key labour shortages and skills mismatches in an accurate, timely and effective way. Future Skills (including the Future Skills Council and Centre) is part of the Government’s plan to ensure that Canada’s skills development policies and programs are prepared to meet jobseekers’, workers’ and employers’ changing needs. The Canadian Government has invested $225 million over four years, starting in spring 2018, and $75 million per year thereafter in the Future Skills plan to: - examine major trends that will have an impact on national and regional economies and workers; - identify emerging skills that are in demand now and into the future; - develop, test and evaluate new approaches to skills development; and - share results and best practices across public, private and not-for-profit sectors to support broader use of innovative approaches across Canada. Future Skills includes a focus on addressing the needs of disadvantaged and under-represented groups, such as Indigenous people, persons with disabilities, low-income workers, newcomers to Canada and youth. This will help ensure that all Canadians can benefit from emerging opportunities.
Chile	The training of advanced human resources for research and innovation and their insertion in industry are some of the central axes for national innovation policies in Chile. There are several programs for the formation of advanced human capital, such as the state scholarships provided through the National Commission for Scientific and Technological Research (CONICYT). CONICYT also offers programs to encourage the insertion of PhDs and master’s graduates in industry, such as the Program for the Attraction and Insertion of Human Capital in Industry (PAI). Despite these efforts, Chile is the OECD member country with the fewest researchers per thousand workers; with 1.01 per thousand labour force against the OECD average of 7.7. In the case of companies that conduct R&D, they declare that on average 2.3% of employees are engaged in R&D activities. In addition, they point out that on average only 0.14% of the company's personnel are doctors while 0.24% have a master's degree. Regarding the occupational situation of the PhD graduates from programmes with a scholarship granted by CONICYT, 92.1% are employed (including employees or self-employed workers), of which 82% are working in universities and 6.5% in companies (public or private). The data show that, in Chile, the main source of work for doctorate-holders are universities. The discussion in Chile focuses on the fact that there is low demand for advanced human capital in companies. While CONICYT programs such as Attraction and Insertion of Advanced Human Capital Program (PAI) have attempted to address this, companies have demonstrated limited interest and take-up. For this reason, studies are being conducted within the Ministry of Economy to make these programs more effective, taking as an example the experiences of countries such as Finland with its program Post Docs in Companies (PoDoCo) or France with its program of Industrial Agreements for the Training of Researchers (CIFRE).
China	Another set of priorities include improving the mode of talent training. Talent policies need to be improved and education needs to be further reformed to better cultivate young people's awareness and ability to innovate. It is also necessary to mobilise talents and establish more flexible talent management mechanisms, to deepen education reform, to promote quality education and innovative education methods, and to improving the quality of talent training. The aim is to form an educating environment conducive to the growth of innovative talents. The education systems needs to stimulate the creative energy of talents, and vigorously train and bring up a large number of strategic scientific and technological talents, scientific and technological leaders, young scientific and technological talents and high-level innovation teams with global vision and international standards. Another priority is taking the "double first-class" construction of first-class universities and first-class disciplines as an important content of priority education development. At the same time, it is necessary to create innovation environments that respect personality and tolerate failure.
Colombia	The main discussion centres on the update of the high-level education policy, with particular attention to PhD and research-oriented master’s programs. A specific area being explored is the creation of programs helping the insertion of PhDs in companies and public and territorial entities. Tax benefits are being contemplated for companies that link personnel with doctorates and research masters. Additionally, the role of emerging technologies and their influence on education and training in permanent learning systems has been debated. In particular, questioning to what extent the country should continue financing the training of doctors in all areas of knowledge or if certain ones should start being prioritized. Likewise, another discussion is exploring the ability for the Colombian national STI system to welcome human capital graduating at the doctoral level.
Costa Rica	One of the main discussions around this topic focuses on the reskilling of our human talent to new areas of knowledge, which are being developed worldwide or that will require life-long learning processes. The discussion emphasizes the role of the Costa Rica’s National Institute for Learning (INA) and its capacities to respond to the requirements of companies to these trends. In particular, the debate centres on the sorts of training that should be provided. Promoted skills should provide people with low academic qualification opportunities to add value and successfully address emerging needs of companies. Universities also need to align their academic programs with these needs to meet the demand of human resources for the knowledge economy. The main government initiatives in 2018-2019 are: - Loan from the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) for Innovation and Human Capital Development: specialised reskilling training for innovations projects in areas such as cybersecurity, IoT, AI, big data, and analytics. - The dual vocational education and training bill: on September 2019, the Costa Rican Parliament approved a dual vocational education and training bill. The legal framework will impact enterprises, students and workers who require learning new skills and abilities in a practical and agile way.
Croatia	This text comes from the 2017 STIP Survey: One of the main challenges facing the national research system is how to create a stable model for recruiting early-career researchers. Another challenge is how to promote intersectoral mobility between academia and other sectors. As things now stand, researchers who are recruited into the public sector/academia are more prone to remain in academia for their entire career. Shorter periods of international and/or intersectoral mobility could be envisaged for younger researchers.
Cyprus	Key priorities include promoting, recognizing and rewarding research excellence. Developing a critical mass of high-quality human capital for science and technology will enable the development of cutting-edge technologies and boost research performance at institutional and national levels. For the enhancement of the human resources capacity in the Cypriot R&I sector, a number of measures need to be tackled: including (i) the improvement of the framework regarding the recruitment and employment policies and conditions for researchers; (ii) the promotion of mechanisms for career development of academic / research staff on the basis of excellence; (iii) the attraction of talent from abroad through the availability of high-quality research infrastructures; and (iv) the availability of an attractive institutional and legislative framework.
Czech Republic	The Czech Republic has been implementing the "Action Plan for Development of Human Resources for Research, Development and Innovation and Gender Equality in Research, Development and Innovation in the Czech Republic for the years 2018-2020" (hereinafter referred to as "HR Action Plan"), which was approved by the Government in 2018. The HR Action Plan addresses a wide range of human resources development issues, including gender equality and diversity. Given the already apparent lack of high-quality researchers and skilled professionals, the main goal in this area is to ensure the availability of a sufficient number of top-class researchers and highly qualified experts on management positions in the corporate sector. The dynamic growth of the research and innovation system in the Czech Republic means it is necessary to further improve the quality of human resources in RDI. It is necessary to stimulate research organisations using appropriate tools to improve the quality of researchers, e.g. through career plans, lifelong learning, etc. The development of competencies that are needed for the management of scientific work (managerial positions) also need to be supported. To improve the quality of human resources for RDI and management positions in companies, it is necessary to constantly improve the quality of master and doctoral studies, particularly in relation to key/future emerging technological fields and socioeconomic challenges. Emphasis should be placed mainly on ensuring a sufficient supply of graduates with a quality education in science and technology, and on improving the quality of training programmes in the humanities and social sciences. Czech universities should also be stimulated to offer more attractive master and doctoral programmes for international students.
Denmark	A 2019 report from the Danish Council for Research and Innovation (Dfir) has examined the career paths and recruitment in Danish universities. The Council notes the emergence of structural career malfunctions caused by (a) the significant increase in the number of postdocs in Danish universities; (b) a significant delay in career advancement from 2008 to 2017; (c) a rise in the proportion of women with children leaving academia and other gender equality indicators, which underlines that the pool of talented female researchers at Danish universities might be diminishing; (d) the Danish position of Professor “MSO” (professor with special responsibilities) not being used as intended, but reduced to merely a professorship trial; (e) open competition in Danish research not being sufficiently transparent in the recruitment processes for research positions in the universities. On the basis of this analysis and data, Dfir makes the following recommendations: 1. Make career paths clear for research in the private sector 2. The career guidance for younger researchers should to a greater extent be directed at employment in the private sector 3. Recruit broadly, openly and internationally 4. Introduce tenure-track programmes 5. Phase out the professor MSO position 6. Funding models should be developed that allow externally funded research to be carried out by permanently employed researchers in the universities to a greater extent The current debate around human resources for research and innovation focuses on these recommendations.
Estonia	The number of researchers per 1,000 employees in Estonia lags behind many successful innovation countries. In addition, the costs per researcher are among the lowest in the OECD countries. As the labour market of researchers is international, a topical issue is how to attract talents to Estonian research systems and how not to lose young promising researchers. Universities are in process of developing academic career models and evaluation systems for academic staff, which would bring more stability to the career system, while at the same time offering enough flexibility to value, in a balanced manner, all career elements of researchers: research, teaching, consultancy and contractual work outside the university, and self-development. With the new career model, there is a possibility to ensure more stability for researchers by introducing tenure for talented researchers. The new academic career model must also improve the match of researchers with the labour market needs of both the private and public sectors. Another topical issue is the promotion of inter-sectoral mobility of researchers. In Estonia, the number of researchers outside academia is very low, which affects the performance of the business sector in RDI activities. To strengthen the absorptive capacity of companies, an increase in the number of competent people with a scientific background is needed. At the same time, inter-sectoral mobility would offer researchers new career perspectives and increase the attractiveness of research careers.
European Union	The fundamentals of a successful European Research Area (ERA) are excellent researchers. To ensure these, it is necessary to improve the attractiveness of research careers in Europe and the conditions for their mobility. One of the most important tasks on the way towards a genuine European research labour market is transparent, open and merit-based recruitment. This makes research careers more attractive and is linked to mobility, gender equality and research performance. Strong human resource policies have positive impacts on career prospects, especially for young researchers. Member States are invited to remove to cross-border research recruitment, as well as to support initiatives such as “EURAXESS – Researchers in Motion” and the “European Charter for Researchers and the Code of Conduct for the Recruitment of Researchers”. Member States are joining their efforts to offer researchers adequate framework conditions and to ensure a single European labour market for researchers in the long run. The European Research Area Committee’s (ERAC) Standing Working Group on Human Resources and Mobility (ERAC SWG HRM) is the structure to support the implementation and the monitoring of open labour markets for researchers (ERA Framework for Priority 3). It also deals with areas related to research careers and mobility, i.e. across and within Member Countries and also concerning the international attractiveness of the EU as a whole. Specific initiatives include the European Charter for Researchers, the Code of Conduct for the Recruitment of Researchers, the Human Resources Strategy for Researchers (HRS4R), the Students and Researchers' Directive EU 2016/801, the EURAXESS services and network, the European Higher Education Area (EHEA).
Finland	Human resources (HR) are one of the critical components for Research, Development and Innovation (RDI) performance, alongside national RDI expenditure. During the past few years, one of the central debates on HR in RDI has centred on young PhDs in universities. While the university sector needs new researcher talent to replace retired staff, universities cannot absorb all graduated PhDs. Far too few are employed in the private sector and especially in RDI activities. This has raised questions about the right volume of PhD production and various means of embedding other professional skills in researcher education. Furthermore, it has been argued that academic appointments should consider private sector RDI experience to facilitate mobility between the research community and the private sector. The target of 4% GDP in R&D expenditures has been seen to necessitate a number of developments in the HR component. First of all, added attention has been paid to the equality and diversity issues in the field of research and especially in innovation, where white-male dominated RDI teams are the norm. Second, a clear need emerged to better identify and value the skills and education of the immigrant population in Finland, to make the most out of their potential. Third, continuous or lifelong learning has received intensive attention from the private sector and the public education system. It is seen as one of the main tools to increase and maintain the high quality skills and education that Finland is currently enjoying. Especially in the past years, there has been a concern for how long it takes students to graduate. Currently, a more central question is what kind of skills set they should have and how their professional ambitions could be met.
France	As part of preparations for the new multi-year programming law of research, a working group was set up to make proposals how to strenghten the attractiveness of scientific jobs and careers in France. This working group pointed out the following issues: - Revalorise the indemnity levels of all public research personnel. - Revive permanent scientific employment by stabilizing the number of statutory jobs. - Revalorize PhDs. - Improve the career development of academics. - Modernize human resource management by facilitating mobility and strengthening evaluation. Links http:/www.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/cid138611/vers-une-loi-de-programmation-pluriannuelle-de-la-recherche.html https://www.enseignementsup-recherche.go....
Germany	The High-Tech Strategy 2025 clearly states that new research areas and new technologies require new skills and abilities. The support for emerging research fields will go hand-in-hand with the support for highly qualified minds in their respective fields. The Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) and the Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs (BMAS) launched together with the social partners and the Federal Employment Agency in coordination with the Länder in June 2019 the National VET Adult Strategy (Nationale Weiterbildungsstrategie). The strategy builds on the initial vocational education pathways and aims to facilitate career advancement and upskilling for broad sections of the population, to strengthen skilled labour development, and to foster long-term employability in times of digital changes. The Skills Strategy will bring together , among others, the various skills development programmes of the Federal Government and the Länder. These programmes will be geared towards the needs of the workforce and businesses, particularly SMEs. The overarching goal is to develop a new culture of lifelong learning. The Strategy Paper sets out ten objectives agreed by the partners of the VET Adult Strategy who will formulate commitments, either individually or jointly, regarding specific activities and projects in order to implement these objectives. Moreover, BMBF has initiated a large number of new measures to contribute to the dynamic developments in the area of digitalisation and automation, pooling them under the umbrella of “Vocational Education and Training 4.0”. These include keeping job descriptions up to date continuously and demand-oriented; investing in training facilities; promoting the use of digital media in initial and continuing vocational training; supporting SMEs in the transformation process to economy 4.0; and supporting the qualification of trainers in companies and training facilities, as well as teachers at vocational schools and examiners.
Greece	A dramatic outflow of highly skilled personnel affected Greece during the recent economic crisis. In 2009-2015, a ten-fold increase of brain drain compared to 2000-2005 was recorded. Brain drain and brain waste are considered the main threat to the Greek research and innovation ecosystem, thus efforts are focused on actions and initiatives to reverse them. For this purpose, an independent organisation was founded, the Hellenic Foundation for Research & Innovation (HFRI). Its main mission is to support curiosity driven research and highly skilled research personnel with funds secured from the Greek Government and the European Investment Bank (EIB) in the framework of an agreement that has been transposed into National Law (L.4429/2016). Most HFRI funds are devoted to doctoral and post-doctoral fellowships and grants, open to all scientific disciplines without thematic or geographical constraints, selected solely on the basis of scientific excellence. Furthermore, apart from HFRI, all RDI GSRT funding schemes strongly encourage the creation of jobs for highly skilled personnel in research organisations and businesses by providing funding for new scientific personnel. In addition, the "Knowledge-Bridges" programme is a recently established interactive platform aimed at mapping and monitoring the profiles of highly skilled Greek professionals living abroad, as well as supporting networking and exchange of know-how with the Greek diaspora. The main debate in that respect centres on the potential benefits from the international mobility of specialised human resources and brain circulation. Recently, under a new national initiative entitled "Re-brain Greece", launched by the Ministry of Labor, possible actions to reverse brain drain by attracting, among others, PhD holders in Greek firms are also discussed.
Hungary	The main challenge is that the country does not have enough qualified young researchers – both at the master’s and doctoral levels – to meet the needs of the academic and industrial RDI sectors. The current RDI strategy (A chance of pace in higher education) sets the target of 56 000 researchers by 2020. Initiatives like the structural reform of doctoral education and the introduction of “dual education” for first degree programs (based on collaboration between universities and industrial partners) are expected to improve the situation. Across the country, several multinational corporations have established long-term relationships with higher education institutions. The introduction of dual training is an important step to provide students with formal opportunities to gain contemporaneously practice-based know-how, work experience and academic knowledge. However, a few years will be necessary before their effects can be evaluated. Across the country, several multinational corporations have established long-term relationships with higher education institutions. The introduction of dual training is an important step to provide students with formal opportunities to gain contemporaneously practice-based know-how, work experience and academic knowledge. However, a few years will be necessary before their effects can be evaluated.
Iceland	There is no specific ongoing debate on government support for human resources for research and innovation. However, there is a lot of debate on skills and skills forecasting in general in Iceland. Statistics Iceland, the Directorate of Labor, the Confederation of Icelandic Employers and the People's Union of Iceland have developed a methodology for skills analysis. This is being used to analyse supply, demand and changes in jobs and sectors, to improve decision-making on education needs and developments, and to meet new challenges or foreseeable problems in the labour market and in the education system. Their methodology was debated in the Science and Technology Policy Council in late 2018 and will inform the strategy for the Council in 2019-2021. In early 2019 a group working under the Prime Minister’s Office delivered their report on Iceland and the 4th Industrial Revolution, which specifically targets in one of its sections the need for education and skills – in particular the emphasis on the need for more people with skills in creative and critical thinking and STEAM subjects.
Ireland	Government support for R&I human resources centres on the development of a sustainable pipeline of researchers: at all career stages and whether they continue their careers in academia or in enterprise. Increasing enrolment of postgraduate researchers to address demand in the economy is a key goal of Innovation 2020. While progress has been slow initially, a number of initiatives commenced in 2019 that will have a positive impact on enrolment numbers. One example is the SFI Centres for Research Training programme. SFI has awarded funding of more than €100 million to six new SFI Centres for Research Training, which will provide training for 700 postgraduate students in areas of nationally and internationally identified future skills needs of digital, data and ICT (https://www.sfi.ie/funding/funding-calls...). Additionally, the Irish Research Council awarded 215 postgraduate researchers under the Government of Ireland programme in 2019. As well as the numbers of researchers, their skills on evolving issues are key, such as Open Research and Research Integrity. Such issues are being progressed in Ireland through dedicated fora such as the National Open Research Forum and the National Research Integrity Forum. Mobility is a vital element of a researcher’s development. As well as international mobility between research institutions, intersectoral mobility between industry and academia forges important linkages between research and innovation performers. The HEA Graduate Outcomes Survey provides an essential source of information on graduate transitions into the labour market and further study in Ireland. SFI tracks the first destinations and long-term career outcomes of researchers. This is considered a key performance measure for the agency and is critical to strategic decision-making. As of May 2019, the percentage of SFI alumni whose eventual destination was industry is 50%. DBEI supports the EURAXESS Ireland Office, which is hosted by the Irish Universities Association and facilitates researcher mobility. In 2018 EURAXESS Ireland processed 566 hosting agreements and 168 agreements were extended. The hosting agreements covered researchers from 77 different non-EEA countries.
Israel	The shortage of technology professionals in Israel represents a challenge to the high-tech sector and to the Israeli economy as a whole. The high-tech sector is the main potential driver of growth in the Israeli economy, and a central asset in it has always been digital R&D talent. However, future growth will be challenged if the country’s supply of digital R&D talent does not grow. High-tech companies are struggling to find technology professionals at the moment – this affects mostly Israeli companies (startups & growth), as multinationals are able to offer higher salaries and recruit the best talent. According to a recent survey, there are around 15,000 technological positions in the Israeli high-tech industry – about 5% of total employment and 10% of technological positions in that sector. This shortage reflects, on the one hand, the rapid growth of the Israeli tech ecosystem, especially in ICT, which creates ever-growing demand for human capital. On the other hand, it reflects an insufficient supply of university graduates over the last decade. Key questions are: - How to increase the supply of quality graduates entering the workforce (from academia or other training frameworks), and how to best prepare them for actual R&D work? - How to create training schemes that suit the dynamic nature of the high-tech industry? New professions are created faster than the ability to train for them. One example is data scientists. The rapid growth in the field of AI in the high-tech sector, as well as accelerated digitisation in other fields such as the health industry, are creating an increasing need for skilled professionals. The worldwide demand for data scientists grew by 650% in 2012-2017. The Israeli government is coordinating efforts to expand the supply of personnel skilled in all high-tech fields by increasing the number of students pursuing high-tech related disciplines in universities, by establishing a variety of extra-academic paths into the industry, by opening channels to recruit skilled personnel from overseas, and by encouraging the study of math and science in schools. Within these efforts, emphasis is being placed on integrating women and underrepresented populations in high-tech sectors (Arabs and Ultra-Orthodox Jews in particular), with a recognition of the unfulfilled potential in these groups. The results can already be seen on the ground. On the academic front, the number of ICT students comprised 26% of the student body pursuing bachelor’s degrees in 2018, demonstrating a significant spike in this field. In the extra-academic sector, there has been an increase in elite training for high-tech professions due to, among other reasons, the Israel Innovation Authority launching an incentive programme for coding bootcamps. The Authority will also soon launch an on-the-job support tool for R&D. Furthermore, with the objective of increasing resources by attracting overseas talent, the government has created a Green Track for foreign high-tech professionals.
Italy	Italy needs excellent, enthusiastic and well-rewarded human resources for research. This concept has been stated on different occasions by the Ministry of Education, University and Research, and endorsed by the “Comitato Interministeriale per gli Affari Europei” (CIAE: Interministerial Committee for European Affairs). The debate results in policy initiatives aimed at favoring brain attractiveness in Italy and their implementation, such as: ? The Framework for Attraction and Reinforcement of Italian Science Excellence; ? The Extraordinary recruitment plan for researchers; ? The Doctoral training schemes; and the National Code of Equal Opportunities. ? The Legislative decree of simplification of research institutes, aiming to simplify the activities of public research bodies and to better define the researcher professional figure ? The National Code of equal opportunities is to promote equal opportunities between women and men in all areas of society.
Japan	It is important to establish a system in which young researchers can play an active role in a variety of fields, including academia and companies, and that research is an attractive occupation. It is necessary to clarify the path for acquiring tenure posts in academia, with a non-tenure outcome the result of a fair performance evaluation after going through a certain competitive environment early on in careers. In addition, in the context of falling numbers of doctoral students, the government is pursuing the following three objectives: - To make doctoral programmes more attractive by enhancing economic support. - To develop doctoral human resources with advanced specialised knowledge, scientific thinking and methods, and problem-solving abilities in graduate school education. - To create an environment in which young, well-trained researchers can lead challenging and creative research as early and independent principal investigators. Furthermore, it is necessary for society as a whole to create an environment in which young researchers can foresee a stable career path in the future. Doctoral researchers should be able to play an active role in a diverse range of fields, and a diverse environment should emerge in which female researchers can play an active role.
Kazakhstan	The main ongoing issues are: - producing not only PhDs and scientists addressing societal needs, but also inventors and entrepreneurs needed to diversify the country’s economy and create jobs; - training researchers to: (i) make proposals and applications for scientific projects, including domestic and (with additional emphasis) international grants; (ii) be prepared in the area of technological entrepreneurship; and (iii) improve their skills in research methods and increasing their language proficiencies; and, - training enhancing entrepreneurial competences, including venture capital funding, technology development and business incubation.
Korea	Three policy issues are discussed (rather than debated) on human resources development in research and innovation: - How to keep nurturing high-quality research talent in the face of a declining population and changes in Korea’s industrial structure? - How to reform educational (mainly university) systems and to strengthen the research-oriented universities so as to improve the research capacities of young scientists and engineers (mainly graduate students)? - How to create high-quality jobs for scientists and engineers, and improve mid-career working conditions (e.g. career development and job transition)? While policy directions on these issues are largely agreed on, a range of specific policy measures are still being examined.
Latvia	There is increased focus on reforming and developing new frameworks for academic staff and academic and scientific careers, as well as reforming doctoral studies by aligning them with active research work. This means increased support for PhD students, both through scholarships and grants, as well as increased state support for research (through grants, state research programmes, etc.). The quality of doctoral studies will be strengthened by implementing the following major changes: - a higher education institution wishing to implement a doctoral study programme and to grant a doctorate shall demonstrate sustainable scientific activity in line with its development strategy and provide bachelors’ and masters’ degree study programmes; - the quality assessment of a doctoral study programme – the licensing and accreditation process – shall be distinguished from the evaluation of other study programmes (bachelors’ and masters’ degree study programmes); - implementation of doctoral study programmes for universities shall be organised in centrally established departments – doctoral schools; - all academic staff of a doctoral study programme shall have a doctorate, except in individual, justified cases; - for each doctoral dissertation, a promotion council shall be established with the composition of five members; at least three members shall not be in employment or other civil relations with a higher education institution that implements the doctoral study programme; three of the members of the promotion council shall be reviewers; also, one reviewer of these three reviewers shall be a recognised scientist from abroad. A new model for academic careers is planned with implementation of a tenure track system, strengthened academic and research integrity, and creation of a more conducive environment for attracting foreign academic staff. In addition, the European Commission is conducting a Policy Support Facility exercise on Latvia’s human capital for research and innovation.
Lithuania	As a constituent part of the strategic objective on sustainable economic growth, the Ministry of Education, Science and Sport (MoESS) proposes strengthening human resources and competencies for research and creating research-based innovations. This objective encounters several issues that are being discussed within the national R&I policy framework. Firstly, the main problem highlighted by the MoESS (and the academic and researcher communities) is related to the brain drain and attraction/maintenance of talents in the research field. The lack of international researchers results in a low number of internationally competitive research groups being able to find solutions for the national and global challenges faced nowadays. Secondly, stakeholders from top universities and research institutes stress the necessity to develop the R&D potential as an essential requirement for having a competitive economy. Both governmental bodies and researchers note the need for higher investments in human resources. A higher availability of financial instruments should lead to increased attractiveness of the R&D sector (e.g. subsidies covering higher salaries and financial instruments for research activities). Discussions are also ongoing on how to make the researcher profession more attractive and popular among the youth. All the actors agree on the need for a consistent national policy with regard to human resources, listing it among top-priority issues.
Luxembourg	This text comes from the 2017 STIP Survey: The match between skill supply and labour demand is the crux of the debate. It starts with the need to increase the pool of science, technology, engineering and mathematics students, and leads to the quality and adaptability of curricula – which itself is intimately linked to the employability of University of Luxembourg graduates. The ill-defined labour demand at the industry level, as well as the time lag between demand and supply, do not make the task easier. Other issues of concern are how to better achieve a gender balance (less than 20% of full professors are female), and how to (re-)attract talents to Luxembourg. The absence of a graduate tracking system, and the question of how such a system might be implemented, are recurring topics on the agenda.
Malta	The PSF Review of the National R&I System provided valuable insights into the policies and measures required to support human resource capacity for research and innovation. Beyond targeted support for R&D funding, such as the setting up of a dedicated fund for basic research, the report also called for improved career opportunities in research. The report also recommends improving mobility opportunities for researchers, both between industry and academia, as well internationally (without however creating too high a risk of brain drain). These recommendations are currently being considered for eventual inclusion in the post-2020 National R&I Strategy.
Mexico	This text comes from the 2017 STIP Survey: The current focus of human-resource policy for STI in Mexico is improving the scholarship system for postgraduate students; most postgraduate scholarships are granted by the CONACYT. A related priority is incorporating postgraduate academic programmes in the National Register of Quality Education Programmes, which would help improve their global competitiveness.
Morocco	This text comes from the 2017 STIP Survey: The main policy debates surrounding human resources for research and innovation focus on the retirement of many professors and researchers in public universities and higher education and/or scientific research institutions in the coming years. The question is how to address this looming human-resource gap, given the expected spike in student numbers. Policy makers agree they need to tackle this issue based on three solutions, discussed in the Parliament: i) The Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research needs to be provided with more new budget items to hire new faculty members compared to previous years. ii) Managers with PhDs must see their administrative positions transformed into faculty (assistant professor) positions. More than 2 000 executives and engineers have benefited from this operation until now. iii) For the first time since the implementation of the 1997 reform of doctoral studies and access to higher education professions, PhD students should be recruited as assistant professors, based on a fixed-term contract (for a maximum of three years). It should be noted that the 1997 reform has limited access to faculty member positions at universities to PhD graduates only. Another issue is that few Moroccan researchers and professors publish scientific papers in international peer-review journals, particularly in the human and social sciences. This stems from at least three factors: i) the implementation of higher education reform according to the EU-Bologna process (bachelor-masters-doctorate) since 2000 has been consumed professors’ time, with a negative impact on research activities; ii) the resources for funding research activities and equipping the laboratories with the necessary scientific materials/equipment are insufficient; and iii) the evaluation grid for career and grade advancement of the academic staff (teachers-researchers/professors) does not emphasise enough research activities.
Netherlands	The ambition is to achieve a more balanced approach to recognizing, valuing and stimulating academic excellence. Assessment of academic research and researchers within knowledge institutions is currently based on their number of publications, their impact factor and the number of grants they obtain. This emphasis is regarded by many in the academic world as too narrow.The aim of the universities is to enable a variety of career paths. Next to valuing academic research, there should also be appreciation for teaching skills, the impact of ones research on society and the demonstration of academic leadership. This does not mean that one person has to be equally good at all these tasks, as that would only increase the work pressure. Arranging a differentiated distribution of tasks within teams should reduce the pressure for individual excellence and place more emphasis on the achievements of the team as a whole. The government supports these developments and supports the field in strengthening this current movement to achieve the aforementioned ambition.
New Zealand	The Government is committed to developing initiatives that will grow, support, attract and retain talent in New Zealand, but the form that these initiatives will take is yet to be decided. One of the points of debate is whether and how the Government should support postdocs. Postdocs are a common way for researchers to begin their career after earning their doctorate. Opportunities for postdoctoral fellowships in New Zealand are low and it is argued that if funding for postdocs is not increased, this may lead to New Zealand talent seeking opportunities internationally. However there are other ways to support talent in New Zealand, including by attracting talent from overseas. When designing and implementing new initiatives to support talent, finding the right balance between growing, supporting and retaining New Zealand talent, and attracting talent with unique skills from overseas, will be an ongoing issue.
Norway	Many issues regarding human resources in research are long-standing topics of discussion. Among these are questions related to the attractiveness of careers in academia (job insecurity and a high share of temporary positions), the availability of alternative career paths for PhD students and postdoctoral researchers and information about possible career paths. An expert group appointed by the Ministry of Education and Research delivered a report with proposals on changes in the career structure in higher education in 2018. The public hearing of the report did not support a change of the career structure, but alternatives to follow up on some of the issues are being considered by the ministry. Among these are questions on the use of temporary positions and how to better include experience from industry and working life in higher education. There is ongoing work on a government white paper on the labour market relevance of higher education. Some issues raised in the debate are related to internationalisation, both regarding the balance between Norwegian and international staff members in universities, and how to support time-limited outward international mobility of staff. Diversity and gender equality (e.g. gender bias in quality assessments, low gender balance in higher-level positions) is another topic of debate concerning human resources and research quality.
Peru	This text comes from the 2017 STIP Survey: Given that a number of university instructors do not possess a masters or doctoral (PhD) degree, the Ministry of Education, through University Law No. 30220, has determined that they must have at least a master’s degree to work as assistant teachers or associate teachers, and a PhD degree to work as principal instructors. Since 2017, the Ministry has granted a bonus to instructors who qualify as REGINA researchers. In addition, CONCYTEC provides funding for public or private universities to create master’s or doctoral programmes in strategic areas, defined in the National STI Plan 2006-21, with the objective of training human resources for STI. CONCYTEC also offers funding for students undertaking doctoral degrees at foreign universities.
Poland	In 2018, the “Constitution for Science”, also known as the “Law 2.0”, entered into force as a comprehensive reform of the Polish higher education and science system. The reform was preceded by a series of conferences taking place during 2016-17, termed "The National Congress of Science” as the major means of public consultation. A few of the conferences addressed directly issues related to development of human resources for research and innovation, the quality of doctoral training and the diversification of academic teachers’ career paths. The discussion on these matters is being continued within the framework of “The National Congress of Science – Forum”, that is, a series of conferences serving as stakeholders' platform for exchanging opinion on and experiences from implementation of the Law 2.0 at an institutional level. Human resources and career paths in the higher education system were the main subject of one of those conferences in 2019.
Portugal	The main ongoing policy debates are centred on raising skills, the promotion of qualified employment and on the ageing of the Portuguese society. The government has been investing and recommending the enhancement of training in areas relevant to science, technology and digital skills. Measures to maximize the absorption of qualified human resources by the business sector and to tackle the aging of university staff have also been implemented. An important goal for social cohesion is widening of the access to higher education and to science and technology activities. This, namely by encouraging student attendance to public higher education in regions of the country with lower demand and less demographic pressure by reinforcing practice-based R&D activities oriented towards professional development and by encouraging short-term study programmes. Policy has also sought to increase support for the qualification of advanced human resources. Specific areas include reinforcing funding for PhD fellowships (with the objective of improving convergence with the European Union) and strengthening tertiary education to increase the overall qualifications of the workforce and to ensure the contribution of young scientists in science, technology and innovation (STI) debates. With the aim of strengthening the human resource base of the science and technology system, and in parallel with an extensive debate in the national parliament and in the public sphere, a new legal framework was published in 2016 to stimulate scientific employment and decrease precariousness for researchers at postdoctoral level. The framework aims to encourage institutional co-responsibility by pooling public funding together with institutional initiatives (universities and research institutes) and to retain and attract talents, guaranteeing open standards in their recruitment. It is recognized in international studies published in recent years that Portugal is one of the European countries where brain drain is more accentuated. Such studies point to factors perceived as crucial in the decision to migrate, such as the economic crisis, the devaluation of local resources, the lack of career opportunities and unemployment. The new legal framework aims to address this challenge by promoting the wider conditions of scientific employment in view of stimulating internal mobility, fostering the attractiveness of the national research system. Specific support for the hiring of PhDs was not significantly capitalised by the Portuguese economic sector in the past. In this sense, the valorisation and recruitment of highly qualified human resources (including doctorates) is part of the strategy for fostering the collaboration between the research and business sectors. In addition, improving intermediation mechanisms and institutions is an important measure to encourage the collaboration of skilled employment with the productive, social and cultural actors. An example initiative is the creation of Collaborative Laboratories, which are characterised by orienting public support towards human resources. Another indirect policy supporting human resources for STI is the R&D tax credits policy, which has specific provisions promoting the employment of doctorate holders in businesses. Other policies are aimed at attracting foreign direct investment in research and innovation, with a consequent impact in the employment of qualified human resources, namely through visa policies. Regarding investment in the development of required skills and resources for a knowledge society and economy, it is worth highlighting the promotion of productivity gains in the business sector by raising digital skills in human resources. The InCoDE initiative has been an important instrument in this regard. At the basic education level, scientific and technological knowledge is a major area of competence contemplated by decision makers and educational actors, and science communication in schools has been particularly fostered in the past two years.
Romania	A downward trend in student population started in the 2009-10 academic year. Causes included a decreasing number of high school graduates passing the baccalaureate exam and the reduction in years of study (i.e. the effects of the Bologna process implementation started showing after 2008-09). Other possible causes leading to this drastic decrease are the high early-leaving rate in the pre-university education system and the phenomenon of external migration, which affects the size of the cohort that can reach this educational level. Many programmes in private universities have closed down. While in the 2010-11 academic year there were +870 000 students enrolled in public and private higher education institutes (HEIs), the figures dropped to +530 000 students in 2016-17. Of the total number of students enrolled in higher education in this year, only 3.6% were in doctoral programmes and 0.6% in postgraduate programmes. In the last academic years, the distribution of students by specialisation shows higher weights in certain areas. In 2016-17, 23.7% of undergraduate students were enrolled in business, administration and law; 21.1% in engineering, processing and construction; and 16% in the health and social assistance group. The lowest numbers are recorded in the following fields: education sciences (3.1%), services (3.7%), and natural sciences, mathematics and statistics (4.1%). The last group is critical for R&D capacity and therefore for the development of technology- and knowledge-intensive sectors. To tackle the challenges, a tax exemption on salary incomes for the personnel involved in CD activities came into force since 2016. The exemption is granted for all persons included in the team of an RD&I project within the limits for personnel costs.
Russian Federation	The development of human capital for science, technology and innovation has been one of the major focuses in the last years. It has been included in the S&T Strategy of Russia. Increasing the attractiveness of work in Russia for leading scientists and young promising researchers is one of the national goals approved by the President of the Russian Federation. A number of new research grants were introduced within the National Project "Science" to support research projects implemented by PhD students and young scientists, as well as to facilitate academic mobility within Russian regions. Another policy initiative aimed at improving management skills of Russian scientists concerns the establishment of centres for training of managers of research projects and research laboratories in the regions. Other tools to promote the development of human resources for science are also being discussed. These include initiatives to create “mirror” university laboratories in the regions aimed at exchanging experience between leading and “catching up” universities, as well as proposals to increase salaries for highly qualified scientists who are in demand on the international labour market. Reorganising the system of postgraduate education in Russia with the improvement of training of academic personnel in postgraduate courses has been another important focus of national research policy.
Slovak Republic	The government has specified societal thematic priorities that address the most pressing problems of Slovak society and present the greatest burden. Slovakia has a relatively adequate scientific potential in a broad range of disciplines of social sciences and humanities. The societal thematic priorities are as follows: - The aging population and quality of life, focusing especially on active aging, the health security of aging fellow citizens (including help in the field of mental health), social security, elimination of barriers for the handicapped, and friendly self-government. According to the demographic outlook, the Slovak population will age most rapidly in Europe. Therefore, there is a grave need to look for solutions that improve the conditions for an active life of aged people and their quality of life. - Multi-ethnicity, social inclusion and problems of poverty of some population groups. The government will focus on seeking effective solutions for those groups most affected by poverty, to identify objective and subjective reasons of the poverty. Emphasis will be placed on long-term sustainable solutions. - Employment of young people under changing conditions. The employment of young people after finishing their studies, and especially their first job, is a critical factor in the field of education and for the preparation of young people for work. Currently, there are many alternatives for the employment of young people, not only an employment contract. Opportunities include creative activities and starting a business. Although there is research capacity to better understand these issues, policy intervention will emphasise practical support mechanisms.
Slovenia	In the last two years, debates primarily took place within the preparation of the new law on research and innovation, with the involvement of relevant stakeholders . The main identified priority was the necessity to improve and support career opportunities for researchers. This could be achieved by supporting the cooperation of public research institutes and opening the possibility to award performance-related bonuses for their civil servants. Various new schemes arose from these debates, aiming to stimulate employment of researchers at the beginning of their careers. The instrument finances research projects that promote the cooperation between the public research institutions and enterprises. Other areas being prioritised is the mobility of researchers and establishing favourable conditions for their employment in Slovenia.
South Africa	South Africa aims to improve comprehensively the research system’s output of human capabilities and this requires several multi-faceted policy challenges to be addressed. High on the priority list, given the country’s history, is transforming the researcher base demographics, especially with regard to the advancement of black and women researchers. The STI human resources policy debate also interrogates broader education challenges, as it is impossible to consider postgraduate training without taking into account issues prevailing in primary and secondary education. Other policy debates revolve around the urgent need to attract global talent to South Africa and indeed reversing so-called “brain drain.” South Africa’s intricate social-economic “triple challenge” of poverty, unemployment and inequality demands a concerted policy focus on strengthening skills in the economy. A big focus is, thus, on the suitability of the tertiary education and training system to promote greater diversity. There is also a need to address education and training for a future of digital jobs. The human resource development debate is also informed by the ambition to support a science-literate and science-aware society.
Spain	The central themes that have dominated the debate on human resources for research and innovation in the past two years in Spain include: a) There have been specific efforts, and a strong debate, towards building a common scientific and technological career in National Public Administration, as indicated in the Science Act (Ley 14/2011, art 29), addressing the heterogeneity of professional groups of research officials in the different Public Research Organisations. Thus, a set of general criteria were established in order to normalize the different scales and professional groups and a compensation regime for the different Public Research Organisations according to their merits. A Performance Evaluation Commission of the scientific-technological activity has been established for the Public Research Organisations ‘staff. This regulatory measure aims at promoting and recognizing excellence, quality and continuous improvement in the professional activities of research staff in the public research organizations under the National Government. b) The need to increase the number of researchers in the public sector and reduce their average age. Recent measures have been put in place, notably the approval of the statute of pre-doctoral research personnel in training, which regulates a specific modality of pre-doctoral labour contract. This implies a clear improvement in the working conditions of thousands of young researchers. c) The reforms to consolidate careers in research through a ‘tenure track’ system in universities and public research organisations, such as more flexible procedures to hire researchers or better regulation of the conditions of established researchers. d) The promotion of incoming international mobility of students and researchers, attracting talent and diaspora and recruiting in accordance with open, transparent and merit based selection criteria. e) The low share of researchers employed in the private sector with respect to the EU average. In particular, the debate focuses on measures to promote inter-sectoral mobility and on the attraction of foreign talent in firms. f) Measures to avoid biases and gender-related barriers to researcher mobility and promotion to positions of greater stability and professional prestige.
Sweden	The government has plans to increase the higher education of teachers, especially in STEM areas, in the medical profession, and in engineering. This is to meet the requirements of industry for qualified staff. In connection to this, research in those areas will be increased in order to have a sufficient research base for teaching. A special focus of the current government is to develop higher education and research in all parts of the country. This would require an increased research volume in smaller universities and university colleges. Life-long learning is also an important priority for the government. This is connected to having research and higher education in all parts of the country. It is especially important in the digital age where Sweden needs an agile labour market.
Switzerland	This text comes from the 2017 STIP Survey: In 2012, the Council of States Science, Education and Culture Committee issued a postulate mandating the Federal Council to report on the measures taken to fund young scientists at Swiss HEIs, and propose further measures in this area. The Federal Council worked closely with the relevant institutions to produce this report in 2014. The report underlined that the Confederation, the cantons, and the universities had already taken various coordinated measures to improve the situation of young academics at universities. It advocated continuing these necessary and important efforts. It concluded that the HEIs should be supported in adapting the career structures for young academics over 2017-20. As early as possible in their career, talented young researchers should be able to apply for academic positions that allow them to conduct independent scientific work and take on responsibility. They should also be given clear career options at an early stage. These measures would make academic careers more attractive for researchers in Switzerland. Owing to the current structures of responsibility, however, the Confederation is only able to play a supportive role in this matter. The responsibility ultimately lies with the HEIs and their funding bodies, which can best judge the vastly differing needs of the institutions according to the subject area, the type of institution and the institution itself. One of the four funding priorities for 2017-20 is "Young scientists": a succession of highly qualified young scientists is vital if Switzerland is to remain competitive in international higher education and research. Hence, HEIs will receive support in adapting their career structures for young academics and scientists.
Thailand	In 2017, the number of R&D personnel per capita was 21 per 10 000 people, with 62% working in the private sector and 38% in the public sector. This number increased from 13.6 in 2015 and 17 in 2016. If growth continues in this trend, it should not be difficult to reach the target of 25 per 10 000 people by 2021. A survey study conducted on research and innovation activity in industry revealed that the five S-curve industries (biofuels and biochemicals, digital technology, aviation and logistics, medical devices, and automation and robotics) will need a well-trained and highly skilled workforce to fulfil 99 000 new jobs in the next five years (2019-2023). Jobs in high demand include aircraft pilots, aircraft maintenance engineers, data scientists, full stack developers, robotic control engineers, mechanical engineers, chemists and biologists. The draft Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation Policy and Strategy (2020-2027) identifies the work force development strategy in four areas: - Reinventing the University System: Setting the goal for universities to develop labour with skills and technical expertise meeting industry demand, developing excellence and creating international acceptance, providing access to higher education to all citizens and help strengthen the national innovation system. - Lifelong Learning and Future Skills: Creating programs to re-skill and up-skill the workforce to address fast-paced industries driven by science and innovation, in the forms of short courses and curricula opened to full-time employees. - Entrepreneurial University and Enterprise: Aiming to promote an entrepreneurial culture in the Thai society in order to drive the innovation-based economy, by having universities taking on the role of “Entrepreneurial University” and developing an entrepreneurship ecosystem in universities to promote spin-offs and innovative start-ups driving growth. - Brain Circulation and Talent Mobility: Aiming to leverage on a limited science, technology and innovation (STI) workforce to drive ten target industries, by allowing the movement of personnel between the public, academic and private sectors, as well as attracting highly skilled labour from overseas. In the past few years, programs such as Talent Mobility, Work-integrated Learning (WiL), National Science and Technology Development Agency University-Industry Research Collaboration (NUI-RC), STEM education, Fabrication Lab continue to be implemented to develop the STI workforce to support the innovation-based economy and S-curve industries. The new Science for Industry (Sci-FI) program, launched in early 2019, aims to enhance the competitiveness of Thai industry by building a skilled workforce according to labour market needs. The Sci-FI program is a 2-year master’s degree program offered by Chulalongkorn University in which students will be placed to work for two years in the positions of assistant engineers or assistant managers at companies. During this time, they are assigned to work on product development, process improvement, or R&D as determined by companies. A new Industrial Postdoctoral, Postgraduate, and Graduate Research and Innovation Program has been introduced in 2019 to groom future researchers by providing salary support to research projects which hire postdoctoral, postgraduate, and graduate researchers. As a measure to attract highly-skilled professionals and talents to work in the S-curve industries, a new type of visa, called Smart Visa, was introduced in 2018. Smart Visa holders will be granted a maximum 4-year permission to stay, together with exemptions from typical work permit requirements and entitlements to additional privileges such as one-year check-ins at immigration (instead of every ninety days) and work eligibility for spouses and children. A tax incentive program for workforce training in targeted areas for 2019-2020 was launched by the Board of Investment (BOI), in which firms can claim 250% tax deduction on expenses spent on workforce training in targeted areas promoted by the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation (MHESI) and the Eastern Economic Corridor (EEC).
Turkey	Highly skilled human resources for science, technology and innovation (STI) has been considered an important means in Turkey for the circulation of knowledge and for the promotion of scientific and technological development. The necessary human capital should be readily available particularly for the growth of technology intense industries and the IT sector. Thus, this issue is crucial for Turkey’s competitiveness. Recently, various policies and programs, such as International Fellowship for Outstanding Researchers and Industrial Doctorate Fellowship Programme, have been implemented by TÜBITAK on the development of qualified human resources in academia and industry. These aim to increase the quality and quantity of researchers in industry, promote the international mobility of researchers, increase the research competences in critical technologies and attract outstanding researchers to Turkey, among others. The Council of Higher Educations has likewise introduced a number of incentives to improve the quality of Turkish academic researchers in terms of scientific excellence, publication at high impact international journals, participation to significant international projects and similar quality measures, together with their contributions to industry.
United Kingdom	Science and research are key to the UK's future prosperity. To maintain and build on the current success in these fields we need to ensure that we remain attractive to the best global talent and enact policies that support and encourage all those with the ability, particularly those from currently under-represented groups, to pursue STEM studies and careers. STEM Inspiration / awareness raising activities, particularly those engaging young people, such as the CREST Awards and STEM Ambassadors, have an important role to play in raising awareness of the opportunities offered by the study of STEM subjects and the ranges of careers that such qualifications can lead to. Furthermore, improving the diversity and inclusion of the research and innovation system is an ongoing area of debate, as is the structure of research careers, where the flexibility of short-term contracts has to be balanced against individuals’ desire for stability.
United States	This text comes from the 2017 STIP Survey: The US administration is committed to improving the technical training of the US workforce through science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) education and apprenticeships. Emerging technologies will present tremendous opportunities for job creation, but will also require a technically skilled and capable workforce to meet demand. To maintain US competitiveness and help ensure a domestic workforce that is available and qualified to undertake the jobs of the future, US agencies should incorporate STEM education (including computer science) and workforce-training opportunities in their programmes. US agencies are to focus on policies and actions aiming to expand the STEM workforce to include all Americans (both urban and rural), as well as women and other underrepresented groups in STEM fields. To track improvements in these areas, they must develop quantitative methods or metrics and collect data to analyse the effectiveness of the STEM programmes.

⇤ 2019 EC-OECD STIP Survey: Human resources for research and innovation policy area

Contents

1. Highlights

2. Main national policy debates

3. Snapshot of policy initiative data

4. Annex A: Raw data for national policy debates